


























































































































































































































WORLD GEOGRAPHIES 


SECOND BOOK 


THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 


r 


9QP 24 1920 




WORLD GEOGRAPHIES 


SECOND BOOK 


jr 

-- BY 

RALPH Si TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. 

n 

LATE PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AT TEACHERS COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 


WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES 


THE 


Ncfo gork 

MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1920 


All rights reserved 



Copyright, 1912, 1913, 1920, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 


NoriMooh $rrsa 

J. S. Cushing Co. —Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., TJ.S.A. 


©CU576593 


I 


PREFACE 


Assumptions in the preparation of 
this volume. — Book Two is a complete 
geography. It assumes, on the part of 
children, the possession of a number of 
general concepts suitable to serve as a 
basis for the more intensive study of 
geographic details. These general con¬ 
cepts include the most important super¬ 
ficial phenomena, such as mountains, 
rivers, lakes, plains, plants, and animals, 
and the relations of all these to one 
another and to man. 

The Place of General Geography. — 
The first matter to be decided before 
beginning to write a complete geography 
is that of the order of topics. Geog¬ 
raphy treats of so many heterogeneous 
subjects that it is difficult, on either 
psychological or scientific grounds, to 
say which should be discussed first. But 
it is customary in school geographies to 
place the broadest and most difficult 
part first, that which is commonly known 
as General Geography, treating of such 
topics as the motions of the earth, its 
place among the heavenly bodies, lati¬ 
tude and longitude, ocean currents, 
winds, rainfall, and meteorological con¬ 
ditions generally. This arrangement 
requires the young student, — and he is 
very young at the beginning of the sixth 
grade, — who has studied only the most 
manifest and simple phenomena of geog¬ 
raphy, to plunge at once into discussions 
that are difficult even for scientists. 

The authors of this geography regard 


such an arrangement, although sanc¬ 
tioned by usage, as unwise, and they 
have postponed the study of these broad 
and more or less abstract discussions for 
at least a year in the life of the student. 
Instead, they begin at once with our 
own continent and country. 

There are two brief chapters treating 
of general, but manifest, facts. The 
first contains a simple record of the 
history of North America, showing the 
most plainly visible effects of geologic 
change. The second treats of the plants, 
animals, and peoples of the continent. 
This is all simply and easily compre¬ 
hended by the sixth grade child. There 
are but twenty-six pages, in all, of these 
two chapters. Following these the stu¬ 
dent enters upon a careful and intensive 
study of the United States, by sections 
and states. This is an illustrated presen¬ 
tation of the geography of our own coun¬ 
try, including all the topics that can be 
said to belong to elementary geography, 
— the states and their surface features, 
government, peoples, occupations, and 
even such historic facts as have largely 
affected geography or have been affected 
by it. This study includes the Depend¬ 
encies of the United States, and is fol¬ 
lowed by a similar study of our North 
American Neighbors. It furnishes work 
for at least a year. It is only after this 
has been completed that the body of 
geographic data known as General Ge¬ 
ography is offered. By that time the 



VI 


PREFACE 


students are better prepared to under¬ 
take this difficult work. 

Comparisons, Reviews, and Correla¬ 
tions. — The authors are firm believers 
in the value of review, and particularly 
in the value of review by comparison, 
showing how the conditions prevailing 
in one part of the world are found also in 
many others, and that the same causes 
produce similar effects, wherever occur¬ 
ring. Through these frequent reviews 
and comparisons not only do the stu¬ 
dents keep fresh the knowledge already 
acquired, but they constantly use it to 
explain similar phenomena elsewhere. 
For example, the most important human 
industries are found among practically 
all civilized nations. These are similarly 
affected by conditions, climatic, physio¬ 
graphic, and social. The child who has 
learned about the cotton mills of New 
England finds it much easier to under¬ 
stand the conditions of cotton manufac¬ 
ture in England and in other countries. 
The study of the production of wheat 
on the northwestern plains makes it 
easy to comprehend the physical con¬ 
ditions under which grain is grown in 
Russia. The effects of climate and of 
soil, of mountain and of river, can al¬ 
most be assumed in advance of knowl¬ 
edge. This all means that, if our own 
country is studied in the right way, if 
children have learned the prevailing 
conditions and the relations of cause 
and effect, it is easy for them to extend 
their knowledge to other lands where 
similar conditions are found. This doc¬ 
trine has guided the authors of this book 
throughout their work. 

At the beginning of the study of the 
surface conditions of South America, 
page 259, or of Europe, page 281, etc., 


they have reproduced at considerable 
length similar conditions in our own 
country, which the students already 
know about; and, continually, through¬ 
out the latter part of the book, they have 
introduced brief comparisons with the 
United States to explain the conditions 
found. On page 362 the mixed population 
of countries of Czechoslovakia, Austria, 
Hungary, and Jugoslavia is compared 
with that of the United States. On page 
356 there is a comparison of trees. On 
page 352 manufacturing in Switzerland is 
compared with that in New England, and 
on pages 348 and 349 the Rhine is com¬ 
pared with the Hudson. On page 304 we 
have a comparison of the government of 
England with that of the United States. 
On page 270 we have a comparison of the 
plains of the Amazon Valley with those 
of the United States. 

These are simply typical illustrations 
of the uses made of comparison to give 
a sense of reality to the children study¬ 
ing geography, and to utilize the mate¬ 
rial already gathered. In addition to 
the comparisons given in the body of the 
text, there are review questions to draw 
out from the children still further re¬ 
semblances and differences. 

In addition to all this, the final section 
of the book is devoted exclusively to 
a review of the United States, compar¬ 
ing it with other countries. This section 
includes such features as area and popu¬ 
lation, animals, food products, textile 
products, mineral products, and com¬ 
merce. 

There is another motive for this final 
section, Part VI. It seems to the 
authors a much more fitting and use¬ 
ful conclusion to the book than that 
which is found in the usual last chapter. 





PREFACE 


Vll 


“ The Islands of the Pacific.” There is 
a sort of absurdity in ending our journey 
about the world in the remotest and 
most unimportant part of it, and so in 
this final chapter the authors of this 
book bring the students back home, there 
to reconsider the most valuable truths 
that they have learned in the course of 
I heir journey, to compare them with one 
another, and to draw, finally, general 
conclusions of permanent worth. 

Geographic Causes and Effects. — The 
authors believe that much of the human 
element of geography is to be traced to 
a physiographic basis, that the conditions 
of stream and forest, of mountain and 
river, of climate and soil, are at the 
foundation of many of the institutions 
of civilization, or at least determine 
their location to a very large extent. 

The location of cities, for instance, is 
not dependent upon chance, but in most 
cases rests upon some manifest natural 
cause, — the presence of a harbor or of a 
navigable stream, the natural crossing 
of lines of transportation, the presence 
of some gift of nature, as a bed of ore 
or a waterfall, or the need of a center of 
trade for a farming section. 

Trade routes, too, are usually due to 
natural conditions. The railroad must 
follow, at least at first, the lines of al¬ 
ready established traffic, — the river bed, 
the canal, or the stage route, and these, 
in their day, were determined by the 
lines of least resistance. 

So, also, great industries are located 
where there are the best facilities for 
them, including power, transportation, 
and labor. It is no accident that for 
many years cotton, grown in the southern 
states, was manufactured in the northern 
states, or in England. So, throughout 


this book, conditions are traced back to 
their geographic causes, and the record 
of these conditions becomes not merely 
a collection of isolated facts, but a con¬ 
tinued tale, having some of the interest 
of history as well. 

Comprehensiveness of Treatment. — A 

textbook for young pupils should be 
readable. To give the bare bones of a 
subject, though they may be good bones, 
is not an adequate treatment. Perhaps 
the chief criticism of the old-style text¬ 
books upon scientific subjects, geography 
included, is that they are skeletons 
merely. They give the outlines of a 
subject, in the briefest and most general 
terms. Consequently, the young readers 
fail to get living pictures and real images 
of what they study. The differences 
between such a book and a good book is 
in the greater amount of detail offered 
in the latter, and the skill with which it 
is used. History and geography have 
been especial sufferers from the con¬ 
densed textbook. The authors of the 
World Geography believe that each im¬ 
portant phase of the subject should be 
enriched by an abundance of detail, 
shedding light on all parts. The child, 
having been put in possession of all this 
matter, can draw his own conclusions, 
because he has genuine images. He 
sees the world, as the geographer would 
have him see it, with vividness. 

The Establishment of Types. — The 
authors of the World Geography place 
little reliance upon definitions. These 
are given merely to aid the memory. The 
chief reliance is placed upon the estab¬ 
lishment in the minds of children of types 
of geographic features and phenomena. 
Each industry, for instance, is treated 
fully, once, in the place where it is most 



VI11 


PREFACE 


conspicuous and important. Thus lum¬ 
bering, fishing,and certain manufactures, 
as of boots, shoes, and textiles, are treated 
very fully in connection with New Eng¬ 
land. Mining of coal and iron, and the 
manufacture of goods requiring these, are 
discussed at length while studying the 
middle Atlantic states. Gold mining is 
treated in connection with the states of 
the far west and southwest; irrigation 
and grazing, with the great plains states. 
By thus treating each important in¬ 
dustry once, and very fully, in its most 
suitable locality, types are established 
which explain conditions in other locali¬ 
ties, and avoid the necessity of that tire¬ 
some repetition which has rendered 
geography forever distasteful to so many 
students. As has been pointed out al¬ 
ready, in so far as possible, the types are 
drawn from the United States, where 
many of them can be inspected by the 
students, and where all of them can be 
so explained as to make them easily 
comprehensible. For instance, cotton is 
treated fully on page 86; irrigation 
on pages 142-147. The raising of 
cattle is treated fully on pages 113- 
115. Consequently, when irrigation, or 
cotton growing, or cattle raising is men¬ 
tioned in the study of any other part of 
the world, it is at once understood. 

Other special features of geography 
that have no sufficient illustration in 
the United States are treated fully where 
they occur, as, for example, Tropical 
Forests in Brazil, page 267 ; the Linen 
Industry in Great Britain, page 297; 
the Silk Industry in France, page 315. 
These types once established, like those 
developed in studying the United States, 
are for use, not only throughout the book, 
but throughout life. 


Maps and Illustrations. — The maps 
used in this book are in the main repro¬ 
ductions of the now famous maps used 
in other editions of the Tarr and Mc- 
Murry Geographies, but there are nu¬ 
merous illustrations, gathered from other 
sources, especially adapted to the needs 
of these books. The greatest care has 
been taken to make both maps and illus¬ 
trations the best possible for educational 
purposes. 

Acknowledgments. — The authors are 
indebted to Mr. Phillip Emerson of the 
Cobbett School, Lynn, Massachusetts, 
and to Professor R. II. Whitbeck of the 
University of Wisconsin, for assistance 
in the preparation of the original volume 
as acknowledged in its preface, and Pro¬ 
fessor Whitbeck has given further aid in 
the later revisions, especially in the se¬ 
lection of illustrations. Valuable assist¬ 
ance in preparation of statistics and 
lists of books of reference has been 
rendered by Mr. Irvine Perrine and 
Miss Kathryn Kyser of Cornell Uni¬ 
versity. 

For illustrations, the authors are much 
indebted to Mr. 0. W. Furlong, the well- 
known artist who made many of the 
drawings, and to William Rau of Phila¬ 
delphia, from whose extensive collection 
of photographs they selected a large part 
of the photographs from which the half 
tones were made. They are indebted 
also to other photographers whose pic¬ 
tures have been used — a list far too 
large to incorporate here. Special men¬ 
tion should be made of the assistance 
rendered by the Philadelphia Commercial 
Museum in supplying a series of world 
product maps, and in giving permis¬ 
sion to reproduce some of their photo¬ 
graphs. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 


PART I. NORTH AMERICA 

SECTION 

I. The Story of our Continent . 

II. Plants, Animals, and Peoples of 
North America . 

Plants and Animals .... 
Peoples. 

III. The United States . . . . 

General Facts. 

New England. 

Middle Atlantic States .... 

Southern States. 

Central States . . . . . 

Western States ..... 

IV. Territories and Dependencies of 

the United States 
A laska ....... 

Porto Rico and Cuba .... 

Panama Canal Zone .... 

The Hawaiian Islands . . . . 

Other Small Island Possessions . 

The Philippine Islands 

Y. Countries North of the United 

States . 

Canada and Newfoundland . 

Greenland ...... 

VI. Countries South of the United 
States ...... 

Mexico . . 

Central America ..... 

The West Indies. 

The Bermudas ..... 

VII. Review of North America 

The United States . . . . 

Other Countries of North America 
Relation of United States to Other 
Countries ...... 

Value of Steam and Electricity in De¬ 
velopment of North America . 

PART II. THE EARTH 

I. The Earth. 

II. Latitude, Longitude, and Standard 

Time ....... 

Latitude and Longitude 

Standard Time . . . . . 


section PAGE 

III. Winds and Rain.224 

Winds ....... 224 

Rain.228 

IV. Ocean Movements, and their 

Effects ; also Distribution of 
Temperature .... 237 
Ocean Movements, and their Effects . 237 
Distribution of Temperature . . 242 


V. Plants, Animals, and Peoples of 

the Earth .246 

Plants and Animals .... 246 
Peoples.251 


PART III. SOUTH AMERICA 


I. 

General Facts. 

257 

II. 

Brazil. 

265 

III. 

Argentina. 

267 

IV. 

Uruguay and Paraguay . 

269 

V. 

The Guianas and Venezuela . 

270 

VI. 

Tropical Andean Countries 

270 

VII. 

Chile. 

276 

VTTL 

Islands near the Continent . 

PART IV. EUROPE 

277 

I. 

General Facts . . . • . 

279 

II. 

The British Isles . . . . 

287 

III. 

The Netherlands, Belgium, and 



Luxemburg . 

303 


The Netherlands (Holland) 

303 


Belgium and Luxemburg . 

306 

TV. 

France . 

309 

V. 

Spain and Portugai. 

317 

VI. 

Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 

322 

VII. 

Russia. 

329 

VIII. 

Germany . 

335 

IX. 

Switzerland. 

348 


X. Italy .352 

XI. New Countries of Central Europe 359 
XII. The Balkan Peninsula . . . 365 

PART V. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, 
AND ISLAND GROUPS 

I. Asia . *373 

General Facts ..... 373 
Southwestern Asia .... 377 


l’AGE 

1 

15 

15 

24 

29 

29 

39 

54 

79 

101 

131 

160 

162 

165 

168 

169 

171 

172 

177 

177 

186 

188 

188 

194 

195 

197 

198 

199 

213 

213 

214 

216 

219 

219 

22:1 


IX 











TABLE OF CONTENTS — LIST OF MAPS 


X 


SECTION PAGE 

Persia and Afghanistan . . . 383 

Central Asia. Siberia . . . 385 

Republic of China .... 386 
The Japanese Empire . . . 391 

Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula . 395 
The Indian Empire .... 396 

II. Africa .403 

General Facts.403 

Northern Africa . . . . .409 

Southern Africa.416 

Central Africa.418 

Islands near Africa .... 421 


SECTION KAO*, 

III. Australia and Island Groups . . 422 

Australia.422 

Island Groups.430 

PART VI 

Review of United States and Comparisons 


with Other Countries .... 434 

Appendix .451 

Index .461 


LIST OF MAPS 


COLORED MAPS 


FIGURE 

2. The Eastern and Western Hemispheres . 

3. Mercator Chart of the World 

8. North America, Political Map . 

9. North America, Physical Map . 

38. Countries claiming the Central Part of 
North America in 1760 . 

40. United States, Political Map 
42. United States, Physical Map 
46. New England, Political Map 
64. Middle Atlantic States, Political Map 
88. Map to show the Location of New York 
City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore . 

94. Southern States, Political Map . 

125. Central States, Political Map 
161. Western States, Political Map . 

200. Alaska, Political Map .... 
205. West Indies with Special Map of Cuba 
and Porto Rico, Political Map 
215. United States’ Dependencies in Pacific, 

Political Map. 

219. Dominion of Canada, Political Map . 

232. Mexico and Central America, Political Map 
266. Forest Map of the United States 
303. Mean Annual Rainfall of the United 
States . 


PAGE 

9 


3 

6 


29 

32 

35 

40 

57 

76 

82 

104 

132 

163 

168 

175 

178 

189 

207 

235 


FIGURE PAGE 

325. Distribution of Animal Regions of the 

World . . . . . .252 

326. Races of Man.252 

333. South America, Political Map . . . 258 

334. South America, Physical Map . . . 260 

358. Europe, Political Map .... 282 

359. Europe, Physical Map .... 283 

366. British Isles, Political Map . . . 290 

381. The British Empire.303 

390. Western Europe, Political Map . .312 

416. Central Europe, Political Map . . . 338 

418. Possessions of United States, France, The 

Netherlands, Italy, and Japan . . 340 

455. Asia, Political Map.372 

457. Asia, Physical Map.375 

467. Holy Land, Political Map .... 382 

497. Africa, Political Map ..... 404 

498. Africa, Physical Map.405 

518. Australia and Islands of the Pacific, Polit¬ 
ical Map.423 

520. Australia and Islands of the Pacific, Phys¬ 
ical Map.425 

533. Distribution of People in the World . . 435 

564. Transportation Routes and Telegraph 

Lines.448 











PART I. NORTH AMERICA 



I. The Story of our Continent 


There are one hundred and forty mil¬ 
lion persons in North America at the pres- 
Our continent eilt time, although a century 
not always as ago there were scarcely one 
it now is tenth of that number. This 
wonderful growth has been largely due to 
the valuable mineral products of the earth ; 
to the soil and climate, which 
have allowed the forests and 
the many different kinds of 
plants and animals to thrive ; 
and to the rivers, waterfalls, 
lakes, and harbors, which 
have made manufacturing 
and shipping easy. 

Yet these valuable things 
were not always here, as we 
now find them. Each has 
had a long history. For, as 
it takes time to build a house, 
and to prepare the boards 
from trees, the nails from 
iron ore, and the bricks from 
clay, so it takes time for the 
formation of minerals and 
rocks, and for the building of a continent. 
In fact, millions of years have been re¬ 
quired for all that work. 

The story of the growth of North Amer- 
Where the i° a ^ las keen learned by a care- 

story of its ful study of the rocks ; and, 
growth has although many questions may 
been learned b e as k e d that no mail is yet 

able to answer, we are prepared to tell a 
part of that story. 

At one time the earth was probably a 


Its birth 


white-hot sphere, like the sun, but in time 
the outside cooled to a crust 
of solid rock. The interior, 
still heated, continued to shrink and grow 
smaller, as most substances do when cool¬ 
ing. This caused the solid crust to settle 
and wrinkle, much as the skin of an apple 
wrinkles when the fruit is drying. Water 
collected in the lower portions, making the 


Fig. 1. — A part of the relief map of North America showing the "West Indian 
chain of mountains rising from the bed of the sea. 

oceans, while the higher portions formed 
dry land. Thus North America and the 
other continents were born. 

In its early history the central part of the 
continent was still a broad sea, but the 
eastern and western parts its early 
doubtless resembled the West bistory 
Indies of to-day, which you will find on the 
map of North America (Fig. 9). Those 
islands are the highest parts of a great 
mountain chain. They seem to be separated 


B 


1 









FIG. 2. 

The Eastern and Western Hemispheres. 



































105 ° 120 ° 135 ° 150 ° 105 ° 180 ° 165 ° 150 ° 135 ° 120 



FIG. 


















































































































4 


Is OUTn AMERICA 




even with the naked eye, ohe can see that 
coal is made of bits of plants pressed closely 
together. Sometimes the full form of a 
fern or leaf, called a fossil, may be seen 
(Fig. 5). 

As the crust of the earth slowly shrank 
and wrinkled, the land was raised and 
lowered. Even now it is 2 Howcoal 
slowly moving in some places, beds were 
and it was doing the same dur- formed 
ing the Coal Period. At that time parts of 
the old sea bottom were raised above the 
water, forming extensive plains in the east¬ 
ern part of North America. Those plains 
were so low and level that vast swamps 
were produced (Fig. 6), on which a rank 
vegetation grew, as in a tropical jungle. 

The swamps were, no doubt, somewhat 
like those which may now be seen in many 
parts of the earth. Possibly the vegetation 
grew far more thickly than now, perhaps 
even more thickly than it now grows in the 
forests of the Amazon or the everglades of 
Florida. The plants of the Coal' Period 
were different from those of the present 
(Fig. 7); indeed, none of the many kinds 
of trees that we now know grew in those 
ancient forests. 


Fig. 5.—The print of a fern in a rock that was formed during the 

Coal Period. 

After the plants had grown in those 
swamps for hundreds of years, the plains 


merely because the ridges upon which they 
rest do not extend above the water (Fig. 1). 


Fig. 4. —Trunks of trees, in the solid rock, standing 
where they grew when these rocks were being de¬ 
posited as sediment in the Coal Period. 


Its later life 


Although in early times North America 
consisted of mountain crests that formed 
chains of islands, many changes 
followed. In the course of 
ages, the mountains rose higher, forming a 
continuous range in the East, and several 
ranges in the West. Then the plains be¬ 
tween the mountains were slowly raised 
above the ocean, and a large part of the 
continent came into view. 

Ages after the beginning, a pe¬ 
riod arrived when the climate was 
The Coal much warmer in the 
Period northern part of 

North America than now, and the 
rains were far heavier. During 
that period our coal was formed 
out of the remains of plants. 

Theie is a good proof that the 
coal used in our stoves and fur¬ 
naces is made of 
plant remains. 

Roots of plants may 
still be seen in the old soil, now 
changed to rock, that lies beneath 
the coal beds ; and stems of plants, 
and even trunks of trees (Fig. 4) 
changed to coal, are found in the coal beds. 
Besides, with a microscope, or at times 


1. What coal 
is made of, 
with proof 











THE STORY OF OUR CONTINENT 


5 


sank beneath the sea, and layers of mud, 
sand, and • gravel collected over them. 
These have since been hardened into layers 
of rock, and the vegetation beneath them has 
been changed into coal. 

After another long period the 
sea bottom was raised once 
more, and dense swamp veg¬ 
etation again grew; but these 
plants had their roots in the 
ocean mud that had buried 
the earlier swamp. After 
many more years the plains 
again sank, and the swamp 
vegetation was covered over, 
as before. This rising 1 and 
sinking of the land continued 
for ages, one set of layers of 
mud, sand, gravel, and veg¬ 
etation being covered up by 
another, until many such sets 
were formed, producing many beds of 
coal. 

The vegetation gathered in some of the 
swamps to a depth of many feet; but, 
when this was covered by the layers of 
mud, sand, and gravel, it was pressed more 
tightly together. As the number of these 
layers increased, the pressure became very 
great, and thus the vegetable matter was 
pressed so closely together that it made 
beds of coal. These are usually only two 


or three feet thick, but some are as much 
as ten or fifteen feet in thickness. 

When the plants died, they fell into the 


water, making a woody matting winch did 
not fully decay, because the 3 . The different 
water prevented air from reach- 11111(13 of coal 
ing it. If it could then have been dug up 


and dried, it would have made good fuel. 
Indeed, in Ireland, Norway, and other cool, 
moist lands, it is now the custom to dig 
such woody matter out of the swamps and 
dry it for burning (Fig. 10). Such fuel, 
called peat, is much used for cooking and 
heating. Some of the poorer coals, known 
as lignite , are little more than peat beds 
partly changed to mineral coal. 

Other beds, having far more pressure 
upon them,, have been changed to harder 
coal. One kind of coal, 
called anthracite , found in 
the mountains of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, has been so greatly 
changed that it is as hard 
as some rocks, and is 
known as hard coal. But 
most of the coal, like that 
of western Pennsylvania and 
the Central States, — al¬ 
though a real mineral, and 
harder than lignite, — is not 
so hard as anthracite. This 
is called soft , or bituminous , coal. 

All this time, and at other periods during 
the formation of the continent, iron, copper, 



Fig. 6. — A view showing how the forests of the Coal Period probably looked. 



Fig. 7. — Trees of the present day in a swamp in Arkansas. Notice how very 
different these trees are from those in the swamp of the Coal Period (Fig. G). 









Parry 


OEVOi 


Melville 
I Sound [ 


»KAoPE N ' 


CIRCIU 


ARCTIC 


-d-thaboAJca 

/—^jW 


eginao Winni 


Spokane 

nButte c 


.aT!'? 0 "* 


|^ elan £aWi@ or< ^ 

Sgga&S 

nuiS v 'R e .< 4 "^-. 


Omaliav 


Aloystonj 


'HeW 

^Orlea^s 


Galveston 


xco YdjlS 

Cape Sab'll? 

Havaa >Sf 


"War, 


Monterey/ 


caN ceR_ 


■tropic 


Merida^ 

C«V , fl 

..t Campeche _p _ 

iV’era Cruz /C 


Guadal; 


■ ICATEN l 

~ PEN. & 


^ J GEOO 


J.Ol 

,,, BRIT. 

. llOM'CRAd 

/YlOS»b'l^§^.. C A 


Mexico 1 


ilSTHMU^^F 

^TEHUANTEPEcO ^ 

New Guatem<ajca ( 

GUATEMALAN.— 

SAN SALVADl 


Acapulco 


M4NAGUAI 

CENTRAL 

--cOSXAJtR 


NORTH AMERICA 


Scale of Miles 


AMERICA 


0 100 200 400 600 800 1000 

Relative population of largest cities 
shown by size of type 

Capitals (•) 


WHUAMS'ENGBAVING CO. 


from Greenwich 


110° Longitude Went 100 


FIG. 8. 









































, PARRV-tJ 

islands 


Melville 

'ySoundr 


PRINCE^ 
J^LBERT^ 
.LAhd ' r 


ARCTIC 




[Oreat Si, 


Athabaaka 




It a tcUL 


/ V*" 

C. Sable 


CANCER 


TROPIC 


Gulf of Pj 


Campeche 


i opocatep 


- iSTHr 
TEHUAN' 


ss 


***** 


PHYSICAL MAP OF 

NORTH AMERICA 

Scale of Miles 


<2P- 


1 

6 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 

KEY 


* 


Over 6,500 ft. 

From 1,650 to 6,500 ft. 
From 650 to 1,650/6. 
From 0 to 650 ft. 

From 0 to 6,500 ft. 
From 6,500 to 13,000 ft. 
Below 13,000 ft. 


WILLIAMS fN6RAVIN6 I 




100° Longitude West from_Greenwich 80° 


FIG. 9. 











































8 


NORTH AMERICA 



The deposit of gold, silver, building stones, 
other minerals an( j 0 ^} ier mineral substances 

that we use every day, were also slowly 
being made. Many of them, such as gold, 
silver, and copper ores, were deposited in 
cracks in the mountain rock. They were 
brought and left there by hot water, form¬ 
ing what are called mineral veins. Iron ore 
also has been deposited in beds and veins, 
though not always by hot water. 


water, and thus lowered so that they are 
now neither very high nor very rugged. 
Still, they have some peaks which reach 
more than a mile above sea level. 

It should be understood, however, that it is not a 
mile from the base to the summit of such moun¬ 
tains ; for mountains usually rest upon a platform, or 
table-land. The table-land, or plateau, upon which 
the Appalachians rest, for instance, is over a quarter 
of a mile above sea level. When we say that the 
mountains are a mile high, therefore, we mean that 
their summit is a mile above the 
level of the ocean, which may be 
many miles from the mountain base. 

The western mountains, or 

Cordillera, are younger and 

therefore less ... _ 

( 2 ) The Cor- 

worn down than dillera and 

the Appalachi- surrounding 
. i • plcitcuus 
ans. r or tins 

reason they are much more 
rugged, with many deep 
canyons and lofty peaks, 
some of which rise three miles 
and more above sea level. 
This includes the broad plat¬ 
eau at their base, which it¬ 
self is more than a mile in 
height, or as high as the 
mountain peaks of the East. 
Some of these mountains are 

Fig. 10. — A scene in Ireland, showing the digging of peat from the bogs. It Still growing, and llOW and 

comes out of the bog wet, and is then wheeled away and spread out then an eartliq uake is Caused 
in the sun to dry. , T . 

as the mountain rocks snap 

During the millions of years that the con- 

Other great tinent was slowly growing, 

changes mountain systems and plateaus 

l. Formation of were forming in both the East 
mountains and . . „ r ° 

and the West. these were 
caused by the shrinking and 
wrinkling of the earth’s crust. 

They were to have a great in¬ 
fluence upon our climate, and 
therefore upon our crops, our animals, and 
ourselves. 

The eastern mountains, called the Appa¬ 
lachians (Fig. 9), were raised above the 
sea in early ages. Since then they have 
been slowly worn away by weather and 


plateaus 

(1) Appala¬ 
chian Moun¬ 
tains and 
surrounding 
plateaus 


and move under the great strain. 

Hundreds of mountain peaks in the West have 
been formed in a different way. They are called 
volcanoes, and are built of molten 
rock, or lava, that has been forced to 0 canoes 

the surface from within the earth. One of them, 
Mount Lassen in California, has within recent years 
resumed activity. Though no longer active, these 
peaks are known to be volcanoes because of their 
cone shape; the hollow's, or craters, in their tops; 
and the lava and volcanic ash, or blown-up lava, of 
which they are made. 

Hundreds of thousands of square miles of the 
western part of the United States are covered by 
lava. Much of the soil produced by the decay of the 
lava is very fertile, and that is one of the chief rea¬ 
sons why the central and eastern part of the state of 






THE STORY OF OUR CONTTXENT 


y 


Fig. 11. — Relief map of North America. 



Washington, which is largely covered with such 
a soil, has become noted for wheat. 


From the mountain systems of the East 

2. Formation of and West ’ the land sl °P eS 
the trough be- gently toward the Mississippi 

tween the Appa- p> iver /pig. i4A These slopes 
lachians and the „ ; . , . .. , 

Cordillera form a kind of trough, through 


the lowest part of which this river flows. 
It was by the uplift of the mountains on its 
two sides that this broad trough was formed. 
Measure its width on the map of the United 
States (Fig. 42). 

Like the mountains, this extensive low¬ 
land, called the plains of the Mississippi 





10 


NORTH AMERICA 




Valley (Fig. 15), has had a long history. 
In the early ages so much of it was under 
( 1 ) Its earlier water that a sea extended from 
history what is now the Gulf of Mexico, 

all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In the 


Fig. 12. — A view in the Western Cordillera showing the rugged mountains 

of that region. 


rock layers that lie beneath the soil of the 
lowland are found many remains, or fossils 
(Fig. 16), of shells, corals, and fish that 
lived in this ancient sea. Upon dying and 
dropping to the bottom, these animals were 
buried in the beds of sand, 
clay, and gravel that have 
since been hardened into rock. 

After a time most of this 
ancient sea bottom was raised 

( 2) how it to form dr y land > 

reached its although a part 
present form Q f ^ — from the 

Gulf of Mexico to the southern 
part of Illinois — remained 
under water for a long time 
afterward. Into this sea the 
Mississippi • discharged its 
floods, and dropped its load 
of sediment, swept from the 
plains and distant mountains. 


As time went on, the river sediment en¬ 
tirely filled up this sea, and formed deltas 
and flood plains which — raised by a slight 
uplift — are among the most fertile lands 
of our country. And now the river seems 
bent on filling up the Gulf of 
Mexico itself. Already it has 
built its delta far out into the 
Gulf, as you can see. 

One might not at first think 
that it made much difference 
how the moun- 
tams and low- portance of 
lands happened this arrange- 
to be placed dur- ment of moun- 

ing the formation tain , s a ” d 
P lowlands 

of our continent; 

but it is, in fact, a matter of 

the greatest importance. 

The Mississippi Valley has 

become the home of many 

millions of people; and the 

climate in which they live, 

together with the crops that 

they raise, depend in large part 

on the direction and height 

of the mountain systems. 

The Cordilleran Highland, for instance, 
has a great influence on the rainfall in this 
valley. In all but the southern part of the 
Mississippi Valley, the winds blow much 
more often from the west than from any other 


Fig. 


Copyright by A. H. Barnes. 

13. —Mount Rainier, in Washington, one of the volcanic cones of 

the West. 









THE STORY OF OUR CONTINENT 


direction. Coining from the Pacific Ocean, 
well laden with moisture, these winds are 
forced to drop more and more of it as they 


carry their warmth and moisture so far 
north. Neither could the cold north winds 
reach so far south. Perhaps you can tell 



Fig. 14. — A section across the central part of the United States to show the relief and the principal slopes. 




pass over one lofty mountain range after 
another. When they finally descend east 
of the Rocky Mountains, therefore, they 
have little dampness left. This leaves the 
plains and plateaus of the 
Northwest dry, or arid. 

The Appalachians, being 
much lower, allow winds to 
carry more moisture over 
them. Since there are no 
mountains on the south, 
winds from that direction 
can bring in vapor freely. 

Winds do, now and then, 
blow from the Atlantic and from the Gulf 
of Mexico, and for that reason the eastern, 
central, and southern portions of the great 
valley are well watered. 


some of the changes that would follow if 
there were such mountains. 

Long after the coal beds were formed, 
and the great highlands and valleys were 


Fro. 16. — Shells or fossils in the rock that was deposited 
sea that once covered central United States. 

How different the climate would be if a 
lofty system of mountains extended east 
and west across the Mississippi Valley ! 
Then the warm south winds could not 


Fig. 15.— A wheat farm on the level plain of central United States. 

made, there came another very important 
event in the preparation of Th& Great 
this continent for our home. i ce ^g e 
It became far colder than it i The vast 
now is, just as dur- sheet of ice, 
ing the Coal Period or glacier 
the climate was much warmer. 
Indeed, it became so cold that a 
sheet of ice, or glacier, was formed, 
so great that it covered a large 
part of northern North America. 
No one is able to say why it came, 
or why it went away; but all 
who have studied the subject are 
certain that it was here, and 
that it remained even thousands 
of years before melting away. 

An ice sheet similar to that 
ancient one may still be seen in 
Greenland (Fig. 2 AsimiIaI 
17). Except along glacier now in 
the very coast, the Greenland 

island of Greenland is now 
buried beneath a glacier which is as large 
as fifteen states the size of New York 
State. 


in the ancient 


immense 


























12 


NORTH AMERICA 


The Greenland glacier has been made 
of snow that has fallen in immense quan¬ 
tities on the high interior. You know 
that you can change a snowball into ice 
by pressing it in your hands. In a similar 
way, the pressure of the great 
mass of snow in Greenland has 
changed the lower layers into 
ice. As the snow collects and 
becomes ice, it spreads out, or 
foil's, from the interior toward 
the coast, much as a piece of 
wax may spread if a weight is 
placed upon it. Moving to¬ 
ward the sea, this glacier drags 
away the soil, tears off frag¬ 
ments of the rock, and scours. 
the rock layers, as if it were a 
mighty sandpaper. The move¬ 
ment is very slow, yet the ice is 
always pushing onward to the 
sea, where enormous icebergs 
are constantly breaking off and floating 
away (Fig. 17). 

The glacier which formerly 
3. Extent of ■, , » 

the Great spread over a part of our con- 

Giacier tiuent was likewise made of 


snow that had changed to ice. It covered 
most of the northeastern part of North 
America, reaching as far south as New 
York City and the Ohio River; but as 
you can see from the map (Fig. 18), 


it did not reach as far south in the North¬ 
west. 

Being over a mile deep in its thickest 
part, and therefore very heavy, 4 Changesthat 
the glacier swept away the soil the glacier made 



Fig. 17. — A view of a part of the great ice sheet that covers Greenland. 
Here it reaches the sea and discharges huge icebergs into it. 



Model by E. E. Howell. 

Fig. 18. —The shaded and white areas show the extent of the Great Ice Sheet at various times in the United States. 




















THE STORY OF OUR CONTINENT 


13 




that covered tile land. Not only did it do 
this, but, by the help of rock fragments 
held fast in its bottom, it scraped off pieces 
of the solid rock and carried them forward. 
As it slowly moved over the surface, it also 
ground bowlders and pebbles together, and 
rubbed them against the 
solid rock, scratching 
and grooving it (Fig. 

19) . Scratches thus 
made may still be seen 
pointing northward, 
toward the place from 
which the glacier moved. 

The rock and soil that 
the glacier carried along 
were finally left in vari¬ 
ous places. Great heaps 
of clay and gravel, called moraines (Fig. 

20) , were deposited along the outer margin, 
where the ice melted because of the warmer 
climate there. The moraine hills, or hum¬ 
mocks, are sometimes one or two hundred 
feet high. 

After standing for a while, and building a 
moraine in one place, the glacier front 
sometimes ad¬ 
vanced to the 
south, or per¬ 
haps melted 
away toward 
the north; and 
each time that 
it halted it 
built up new 
moraines 
along its front. 

During the 
thousands of 
years that the 
Great Ice 

Sheet lasted, it carried millions of tons of 
clay and rock from one place to another, 
and built many low moraine hills. 

The work of rasping, digging, carrying, 
and dumping which was done by the glacier 
has caused it to be likened to a combined 
file, plow, and dump cart of enormous size. 


It 


was this glacier which caused the 
number of lakes and ponds in the 
northeastern part of North 
America. Minnesota alone is 
said to have ten thousand, 
and in New England also 

there are 


5. Effects of the 
glacier’s work 

(1) Upon our 
lakes 


Fig. 19.— Grooves on the rock, made by the Great 
Ice Sheet as it dragged bowlders along with it. 


many thou¬ 
sands (Figs. 21 and 
89). Most of the states 
outside of the region 
covered by the ice sheet 
have very few lakes. 

The manner in which these 
lakes were formed is as fol¬ 
lows : The load of clay and 
bowlders, or drift, as it is 
called, was not dumped 
evenly over the land. There 
were hollows and ridges left, and after the ice 
melted, water filled the hollows, forming ponds 
and lakes. In other cases the drift partly filled 
valleys and thus built dams, behind which ponds 
and lakes collected. Still a third way in which lake 
basins were formed, was by the glacier digging, or 
plowing, directly into the rock. 


Even our Great 


coming of the 


glacier, 


Fig. 20. — Hills of gravel left by the Great Ice Sheet where its front 

stood for a while. 


Lakes did not exist before the 
Their basins occupy broad 
river valleys 
which have been 
blocked by dams 
of drift, and 
deepened by the 
plowing of the 
Great Ice Sheet. 


The glacier 
had an im¬ 
portant influ¬ 
ence upon our 
m anufactur- 
ing, also. The 
deposit of drift 
in valleys 

often so filled them that, after ) Upon our 
the ice was gone, the streams manufacturing 
were forced to seek new courses. These 
courses sometimes lay down steep slopes, or 
across buried ledges, over which the water 
now tumbles in many rapids and falls (Fig. 
22). Even the great cataract of Niagara 












14 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 21.— Lake Wiuuipesaukee, iu New Hampshire, one of the many lakes of New England caused by the deposits 

made by the Great Ice Sheet. 



(Fig. 68) was caused in this way, and the 
same is true of many of the falls and rapids 
of hilly New England and New York. The 


many lakes act as storehouses to keep the 
noisy falls and rapids well supplied with 
water. In this way New England and New 
York came to have the abun¬ 
dant water power which has 
helped to make them impor¬ 
tant manufacturing centers. 
In sections of our country 
not reached by the glacier, 
rapids and falls are much 
less common. Did the glacier 
cover the land on which you 
live? (See Fig. 18.) 

A third important influence 
of the glacier was upon the 
soil, and there- ( 3 ) Upon our 
fore upon our farming 
farming. In most parts of 
the country the soil has been 
made by the decay of rock ; 
but in the region which the 
glacier covered, the decayed 
rock was swept away, and 
drift brought by the glacier 
was left in its place. This 
soil was made by the grind¬ 
ing of rocks together, much 
as flour is made by grinding 
wheat; in fact, glacier soil is 
sometimes called rock flour. 
In some places the layer of 


Fig. 22. — Enfield Falls, near Ithaca, New York. One of the many 
waterfalls caused by the Great Ice Sheet. 









THE STORY OF OUR CONTINENT 


15 



drift that the glacier left is several hundred 
feet deep. 

The bits of ground-up rock left by the glacier have 
had au important effect upon the soil. Since they 
were gathered from many places, and from many 
different kinds of rock, they some¬ 
times cause a fertile soil in places 
where the decay of the rocks would 
naturally have formed a sterile soil. 

The constant rusting, or decaying, 
of these rock fragments is also of 
use in keeping the soil supplied 
with plant food. 

On the other hand, in some places 
the glacier failed to grind the rock 
into tiny bits. Instead of that, it 
left many pebbles, and even large 
bowlders, to cover the ground and 
hinder the farmer (Fig. 23). In 
other places, the great quantities of 
water supplied by the melting ice 
washed away much of the rock flour. 

This left extensive sand and gravel 
plains that are by no means fertile. 


become evident. For instance, the land 
along the coast of New Jersey is sinking at 
the rate of about two feet a century, while 
that around Hudson Bay is rising. 

Some of the recent changes in the level 


Fig. 23. — A view in New England where the glacier left great numbers 
of bowlders in the soil, from which these stone walls have been made. 


In studying about the Mississippi Valley 
and the formation of coal, we saw that the 
Formation of sea bottom, and even the dry 
the coast line land, are not fixed and always 
the same. On the contrary, they often 
slowly rise or sink. 


of the land have had an important effect. 
This is shown on our north- 2 Effects of 
eastern coast, where the land sinking of our 
has recently sunk several hun- northern coast 
dred feet. By this sinking the ocean water 
has been allowed to enter the valleys, leaving 



Fig. 24. — A view in the harbor of Sitka, Alaska. Here the land has been lowered, and only the tops of the hills rise 

above the water, forming many islauds. 


Such changes in the level of the land are 


even now in progress m many 
places, though the process is 
so slow that usually years, and 
even centuries, must pass before the changes 


1. Recent 
movements of 
the land 


the higher land to form peninsulas, capes, 
and islands, while the valleys have become 
harbors, bays, and straits (Fig. 46). 

The peninsulas of Labrador and Nova 
Scotia, and the hundreds of islands along 









16 


NORTH AMERICA 


the northeastern coast, including Newfound¬ 
land, have been formed by this sinking of 
the land. The irregular Pacific coast, from 
Puget Sound northward (Fig. 24), was 
caused in the same way. 

Many good harbors were made by this 
sinking of the land, the best being where 
rivers enter the sea. When the land was 
higher, the streams carved out broad val¬ 
leys; but as the land sank, the sea entered, 
forming extensive bays and fine harbors. 
In this way the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
was formed ; also New York, Delaware, 
Chesapeake, and San Francisco bays, as 


well as many excellent harbors on the east 
and west coasts. What rivers carved out 
the bays mentioned? (See Figs. 42 and 
219). 

One reason for so few good harbors along 
the coast of the Southern States is that the 
3 Effects of land in that section has been 
rising of our rising. Just off the coast is a 
southern coast p roa j ocean bottom plain, called 

the continental shelf, where the water is 
shallow (Figs. 11 and 95). If the con¬ 
tinental shelf were raised, it would form a 
plain. 

That part of the Southern States which 
borders the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic 
Ocean was once a portion of this continental 
shelf, but it has been raised until it is now 
a low plain (Fig. 25). The continental 


shelf is so level that when a part of it was 
lifted above the water there were few places 
for deep inlets, bays, and harbors. After 
the plain was raised, however, the coast was 
slightly lowered ; but the bays thus formed 
are still shallow, and most of the harbors 
poor. The Florida peninsula is also a sea- 
bottom that has been slightly lifted above 
the ocean. 

After changing during millions of years, 
owing to the rising and sinking of the land, 
North America is now third p resen t size, 
in size among the continents shape, and 
of the earth. Which are position of 

larger? Which continent 
are smaller? (See Appendix, 
p. 451.) The continent has 
the form of a triangle, with 
the broadest portion in the 
north. Draw the triangle. 
Compare its shape with that 
of South America (Fig. 2). 
Of Africa (Fig. 2). 

The northern part is so 
wide that Alaska extends to 
within fifty miles of Asia, a 
distance so short that the 
early ancestors of our Indians 
and Eskimos probably first 
reached North America by 
that route. Labrador, the part of the con¬ 
tinent that extends farthest east, is over 
two thousand miles from Europe. On 
account of the great distance across the 
Atlantic, Europeans for a long time knew 
nothing of North America. It is certain, 
however, that the Norsemen from Scandi¬ 
navia visited our shores nearly five hundred 
years before Columbus discovered the con¬ 
tinent. 

Most of the inhabitants of North America 
live far to the south of Alaska and Labra¬ 
dor, and here the oceans are Importance of 
much broader. Thus the in- this position 
habited portion of the continent is a long 
distance from Europe on the east, and a 
still greater distance from Asia on the west. 
This wide separation from other continents 



Fig. 25.— A view in the timber regions of the coastal plain of eastern 

Texas. 







PLANTS, ANIMALS , AND PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA 


17 


has had great influence upon the develop¬ 
ment of the people of North America. It 
helps to explain, for instance, why the 
Spanish colonies were able to win their 
independence from Spain, and the United 
States their independence from England; 
for the distance across the sea was too great 
to send large armies, and the supplies neces¬ 
sary for their support. 

Our distance from other continents helps 
also to explain the growth of our industries. 
At first the colonies imported even bricks, 
doors, and timber from Europe. But it 
proved so troublesome and expensive to 
carry such goods so far, that our settlers 
soon learned to produce for themselves 
most of the articles they needed. 

Now that men have learned the use of 
steam, the distance from other countries is 
not so serious a drawback. Sailing vessels 
were very slow, and always at the mercy 
of winds and storms. Steamships, on the 
other hand, are easily controlled, and may 
go as far in one day as the old-fashioned 
sailing vessels traveled in a week. With 
the use of steam, therefore, immigrants 
from Europe have found their way here by 
millions; and trade with the countries of 
Europe, South America, Asia, and other 
parts of the world has rapidly developed. 
Steam has made the ocean an excellent 
highway for reaching distant points. Thus 
our separation from other continents has 
helped in many ways to make us indepen¬ 
dent, without bringing serious disadvan¬ 
tages. 


Review 

Questions 

formed ? 5 


1. How has the story of the growth of our conti- 
nent been learned ? 2. Describe the birth and early 
history of the continent. 3. From 
what is coal made? Give proof. 
4. How have the coal beds been 
Name the different kinds of coal and 
give reasons for the difference. 6. What about 
the making of other minerals ? 7. How were the 
mountains and plateaus formed ? 8. What can 

you tell about the formation of the Appalachian 
Mountains and 'surrounding plateaus? 9. About 
the formation of the Cordillera and surrounding 
plateaus ? 10. How were the volcanoes formed ? 

State other facts about them. 11. How was the 


trough formed between the Appalachians and the 
Cordillera? 12. Show how this arrangement of 
mountains and lowlands is of great importance. 

13. Describe the glacier now found in Greenland. 

14. What was the extent of the Great Ice Sheet on 

our continent? 15. What changes did it make? 
16. What were the effects of the glacier’s work upon 
our lakes? 17. Upon our manufacturing? 18. Upon 
our farming ? 19. What have been some of the 

effects of the sinking of our northern coast? 
20. Of the rising of our southern coast? 21. What 
is the present size, shape, and position of our conti¬ 
nent? 22. Explain the importance of this position. 

1. Make a collection of different kinds of coal. 

2. Examine some pieces of soft coal closely, to see 
if you can discover plant remains. 

3. Obtain some peat. 4. Examine S “ ggeStl0 " S 

layers of rock in your neighborhood, to see if they 
contain fossils. 5. Make a drawing similar to Figure 
14. 6. Make a model of a volcano out of sand or 

clay. 7. What becomes of the Greenland icebergs? 
8. Make a sketch map showing the extent of the 
Great American Ice Sheet. 9. What signs of the 
glacier, if any, can you find in your neighborhood ? 
10. Draw an outline map of the northeastern coast, 
and another of the southern coast, to see how they 
differ. 11. How many days long is the voyage, on 
a fast steamer, from New York to Liverpool? How 
many miles is the distance? 


II. Plants, Animals, and Peoples 
of North America 

i. Plants and Animals 

One of the most important things to 
know about a region is its climate , that is, 
its temperature and rainfall. i n fl Uence 0 f 
Where these are favorable, climate on 
plants usually flourish; and plants and 
since plants furnish food to animals 
animals, animal life thrives wherever vege¬ 
tation is abundant. Because North Amer¬ 
ica extends far north and south, and has 
lofty mountain ranges and inclosed pla¬ 
teaus, it has many different kinds of cli¬ 
mate. Therefore it has a great variety of 
plant and animal life. 

The northern part of our continent is 
bitterly cold ; and over a vast area the soil 
is always frozen, except at the plants of the 
very surface, where it thaws Far North 
out for a few weeks in summer. On ac- 



18 


NORTH AMERICA 


count of the frost, trees, such as we know, 
cannot grow there, for their roots are un¬ 
able to push through the frozen ground and 
find the necessary plant food. There are 
some willows, birches, and a few other 
woody plants ; but instead of growing to a 
good height, as our willows and birches do, 
these creep along the surface like vines, 
and rise but a few inches above the ground. 
Only by hugging the earth can they find 
protection beneath the snow, and thus es¬ 
cape the lierce blasts of winter. 


A few grasses and 
small flowering plants 
grow rapidly, produce 
flowers, even close by 
the edge of snow banks 
(Fig. 26), and then die, 
all within the few short 
weeks of summer. Some 
of these plants develop 
berries, which, after 
ripening, are preserved 
by the snows, so that 
when the birds arrive 
in the spring, they find 
food ready for them. 


The growth of in¬ 
sects in summer is 

Animals of the rapid, 

Far North like the 

1. Insects growth 

of plants. As the 
snow melts, and the 

soil thaws at the surface, the ground be¬ 
comes wet and swampy, and millions of in¬ 
sects appear. Among them the most com¬ 
mon is, perhaps, the mosquito. There are 
few parts of the world where this creature 
is a worse pest than on the barrens , or tun¬ 
dras, as these treeless, frozen lands of north¬ 
ern North America, Europe, and Asia, are 
called. 

Few large land animals thrive in so cold 
a climate, where there is such a scarcity of 

2. Larger ani- plant food; and the cold- 
mais on land blooded animals, or reptiles, 
cannot live there. The reindeer, or cari¬ 
bou, the musk-ox, and polar bear are the 



largest four-footed land animals (Fig. 27) ; 
and the crow, sparrow, and ptarmigan are 
the most common land birds. 

The color of the ptarmigan and the rabbit changes 
to white in winter, and other animals, such as the fox, 
polar bear, and baby seal, are also 
white. This helps them, in that 3. Color pro¬ 
land of snow and ice, to hide from tection, and 
their enemies, or to steal upon their ^^ig 1 ” 11636 
prey unawares. The small white fox 
feeds upon birds and other animal food, and the polar 
bear lives mainly by hunting the seal. His white fur 
makes him almost invisible, and he steals noiselessly 

upon his prey, asleep 
upon the ice; or, he 
patiently watches until 
his victim swims within 
reach, and then seizes 
him with his powerful 
claws (Fig. 314). 

The other land ani¬ 
mals live upon plants, 
such as berries, grass, 
and moss. The caribou 
eats the plant called 
“ reindeer moss,” which 
grows upon the rocks. 
If it were not for this, 
he would be unable to 
live through the long 
winter. To find this 
moss and other plants, 
he often has to scrape 
away the snow which 
covers the ground. 


Fig. 26. — An Arctic poppy in blossom, although growing 
on the edge of a snow hank. 


4. Sea animals 


Many more ani¬ 
mals have their 
homes in the sea than upon 
the land, because there, except 
at the very surface, the temperature never 
goes below the freezing point. Therefore 
there are plenty of sea animals of all sizes, 
from those so small that they cannot be 
seen without a microscope, to the whale, 
the largest of all animals. 

Sea birds exist by tens of thousands, 
building their nests upon the rocky cliffs 
(Fig. 27). Indeed, they are so numerous 
that, when suddenly frightened by the firing 
of a gun, they rise in a dense cloud that 
hides the sun ; and with their cries they 
produce a din that is almost deafening. 









ARCTIC FOX 


PTARMIGAN 


GUILLEMOT 


GREATAUK 

NOW extinct/ 


CARIBOU 


MUSK OX 


The. M.N.Cj., B uffalo. _ ___ 

Fig. 27. — Some of the birds and four-looted animals of the Far North. 








20 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 28. — Walrus on the ice that is ev r er present in 
the Arctic Ocean. 


Seals (Fig. 225) and walruses (Fig. 28) 
live in the water, the former being so valu¬ 
able for their oil and skins, that men go on 
long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes 
from a layer of fat, or “ blubber,” just be¬ 
neath the skin, that serves to keep out the 
cold. The seal is the most common of the 


larger Arctic sea animals, and is the prin¬ 
cipal food of the Eskimo, as well as of the 
polar bear. 

During the winter the surface of the sea freezes 
over. Then many of the animals of the Far North 
migrate southward. Even the huge 
southward° n walrus (Fig. 28) moves clumsily to- 
in winter ward a warmer climate. The birds 

go farthest, especially the geese, 
ducks, and gulls, which fly to Labrador, New Eng¬ 
land, Noi'th Carolina, and even farther south. 


A large area in the western part of the 
United States and in Mexico has a very 
slight rainfall, although the 
temperature is agreeable. This 
arid area includes most of the 
territory in which the rainfall 
is twenty inches or less dur¬ 
ing one year (Fig. 308). In 
some places, as near the Pa¬ 
cific coast and upon the high 
plateaus and mountain tops, there is rain 
enough for forests ; but in most parts of the 


Plants and 
animals of the 
temperate 
zone 

1. In the arid 
West 

(1) Plants of 
this region 


Far West the climate is so dry that there 
are no trees whatsoever. Indeed, some por¬ 
tions are true deserts. 

One common plant in the arid lands is 
the bunch grass, so called because it grows 
in little tufts, or bunches, having a dozen 
or more blades. The sagebrush (Fig. 29), 
a plant with a pale green leaf, named be¬ 
cause of its sagelike odor, is found through¬ 
out most of this arid region. Other com¬ 
mon plants are the mesquite ; the century 
plant, with its sharp-pointed leaves; and 
the cactus, with its numerous thorns. 

On account of the dry climate, these plants have 
a severe struggle to live, and they protect themselves 
in peculiar ways. For example, the 
cactus, unlike most plants, has no ^ ow ( ^ ese 

true leaves. Thus it exposes little ^ mana 9 e 
surface to the air for evaporation. 

In its great, fleshy stem, it stores water for use 
through the long, dry seasons, while its needle-like 
spines protect it from animals in search of food. 

The mesquite also protects itself by spines, and, 
in addition, it has such large roots that the part of the 
plant underground is often greater than that above. 
The roots of this plant furnish much wood for fuel. 
Some of these plants, like the sagebrush, have such 



Copyright by Detroit Photographic Company. 


Fig. 29.— A. view in the desert of Southern California. 
The low plants are sagebrush; the higher ones, with 
spiny branches, are Yucca. 














PLANTS , ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA 


21 


a disagreeable taste that animals will not eat them. 
Thus they are further protected. 

At one time the most common animal in 
much of this arid section was the bison, or 
(3) Animals of buffalo (Fig. 30), whose home 
this region was on the prairies and arid 
plains east of the Rocky Mountains. Thou¬ 
sands upon thousands of bison were slaugh¬ 
tered for their hides and tongues alone, and 
their bones left to whiten upon the plains. 
There are now no wild bison in the United 


National Park, many of these animals are seen there. 
Deer and elk are common; also black, cinnamon, 
and grizzly bears, which are so tame that at night 
they come close to the hotels to feed upon the 
garbage. 

Between the frigid and torrid zones, and 

both east and west of the arid „ . .. 

region, is a temperate belt of parts of tem- 

moderate rainfall. The climate P erate North 

America 

is warm in the south, cool in 
, . . ’ _ , . (1) Plants of 

the central part, and cold in this region 



Fig. 30. — A herd of bison, which once roamed over central United States. 


States, except a few in the Yellowstone Na¬ 
tional Park of Wyoming, where they are 
protected by the government (Fig. 196). 

The graceful antelope, the cowardly prairie wolf, 
or coyote , and the rabbit, upon which the coyote feeds, 
are still to be seen (Fig. 31). Among the rabbits 
is the long-legged jack rabbit, which leaps across the 
plains with astonishing speed. 

The fierce puma, or mountain lion, and the ugly 
cinnamon and grizzly bears (Fig. 31) still live 
among the mountains, though they are now rare and 
difficult to find. Deer and elk inhabit the forest- 
covered mountainsof southern Canada and the north¬ 
western part of the United States; and among the 
higher peaks a few mountain goats and sheep are 
still to be found (Fig. 31). 

Since no hunting is allowed in the Yellowstone 


the north. Here both the plants and ani¬ 
mals differ from those of the arid regions. 

In the warm southern part, the plant and 
animal life is abundant, and of many kinds. 
Both plants and animals become less nu¬ 
merous and less varied toward the north, 
until, near the Arctic zone, they are scarce 
and few in kind. The pines and oaks of 
the United States give place to the spruce, 
balsam fir, and maple in Canada; farther 
north these gradually become stunted and 
disappear ; and finally the treeless barrens 
are reached. 

Some persons believe that at one time 
most of the eastern part of the United States 










RATTLESNAKE 


BIG-HORN SHEEP 


JACK RABBIT 


PUMA 


ANTEL-0 


PRAIRIE DOG 


GRIZZLY BEAR 


TheM.N.Co., BurfALo 






PLANTS , ANIMALS , PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA 


23 


was wooded, including the fertile prairies of 
the Mississippi Valley. They think that 
the trees were burned from the prairies by 
fires set by the Indians. Others believe 
that the prairies were always treeless, being 
too level and swampy for trees to grow. 

When America was first visited by Euro¬ 
peans, our woods abounded in deer (Fig. 
(2) Animals of 32), moose, caribou, wolves, 
this region and foxes (Fig. 33). Beavers 
built dams across the streams ; the mink 
and otter fished in 
the waters ; and 
bears roamed at will. 

Among the birds, the 
eagle was common 
(Fig. 33), and wild 
pigeons and turkeys 
were so abundant 
that they were one 
of the principal foods 
of the early settlers. 

Now most of these 
animals have been 
destroyed, although 
some still live in the 
forest and mountain 
region. Some of 
them, like the deer, are now carefully pro¬ 
tected by state laws, which prohibit shooting 
them except at certain seasons, and then 
only in small numbers. In the forests of 
Canada and in Alaska, many wild animals 
are still left. 

It might seem that the native plants and 
animals of temperate North America would 

3. Native plants soon disappear. For the white 

and animals man has come into possession 
that will remain Q £ £j ie J an( J ? anc £ ] ias cu £ c ] own 

much of the forest, and plowed the prairies, 
so that where trees once stood, and game 
was plenty, there are now fertile farms and 
thriving cities. Not all will be destroyed, 
however, for some of the forests will remain, 
and many wild plants will grow in the 
uncultivated spots. The birds and some of 
the smaller animals will be able to survive; 
and in the forests larger animals, protected 


to some extent by law, will continue to 
roam about freely. In addition, a few of 
the animals and plants, which man has 
found useful, have been domesticated, and 
these will continue to thrive. 

Our domesticated plants and animals well 
illustrate how man has learned to make use 
of nature. At one time, every variety of 
plant that we now cultivate was wild ; and 
our domesticated animals have all come from 
wild stock. Most of these have been found 

in Europe and Asia, 
but America has 
added some to the 
list. The Indian 
corn, or maize, the 
tobacco, tomato, 
pumpkin, and potato 
were unknown to 
the Old World until 
America was dis¬ 
covered. The same 
is true of the turkey, 
and perhaps, in a 
hundred years, the 
bison may be in¬ 
cluded among the 
domesticated ani¬ 
mals, for a few small herds are now being 
carefully reared on the cattle ranches of 
the West. 

In the torrid zone, the climate is warm or 
hot, and in most parts the rainfall is so 

heavy that the conditions are , . 

J . Plants and 

favorable tor dense vegetation, animals in the 
Indeed, the tangle of growth torrid zone 
in the forests is so great that l. The plants 
it is often impossible to pass lnthlsre s lon 
through it without hewing one’s way. Be¬ 
sides trees and underbrush, there are quanti¬ 
ties of ferns, vines, and flowers, many of 
which hang from the trees with their roots 
in the air instead of in the ground. They 
are able to live in this way on account of 
the moisture in the air. Among the trees 
are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, ebony, 
and rubber tree, and among the flowers are 
the beautiful orchids. On account of the 



Fig. 32.— A. wild deer on the edge of the forest. 








ERMINE 


MINK 


LY N X 


WOLF 


HEDGEHOG 


MOOSE 


F-ig. 33. — Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 







HUMMING BIRD 


UR&t 


PARROT 


TAPIR 


TARANTULA 


>' K : 

r JAGUAR 


MONKEY 


ANACONDA 


ALLIGATOR 


THEM.N.Ca,BuFfALO, 


Fig. 34. — Some of the animals that live in the tropical part of North America. 





26 


NORTH AMERICA 


continual warmth and dampness, many 
plants, such as the banana, bear fruit 
throughout the year. 

In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, 
animal life is wonderfully varied and abun- 
2. The animals dant. There are the tapir, 
in this region monkey, and jaguar (Fig. 34); 

brilliantly colored birds, such as parrots 
and humming birds; and there are mil¬ 
lions of insects. Scorpions and centipeds 
abound, and ants exist in countless numbers, 
some in the ground, others in decayed 
vegetation. Serpents, some of which are 
poisonous, are common in the forests ; and 
in the rivers are fish and alligators, the 
latter being found as far north as Florida 
and Louisiana. 

2 . Peoples 

America was inhabited for thousands of 
years before it was discovered by white 
men. To the natives in the 
The Eskimos S0ll thern part Columbus gave 

the name Indians , in the belief that he had 
reached India. Those in the Far North, who 
live on meat, are called Eskimos , a word 



Fig. 35. — An Eskimo mother and her children. The very 
young children are carried on the hack in a sealskin 
hood. 



Fig. 3G. — An Indian woman and child. 


meaning flesli-eaters (Fig. 35). What do 
you recall about their manner of life from 
your study of the First Book? 

Indians were at first scattered over most 
of the country south of the Arctic Circle. 
That this was so is suggested The Indians 
by the many places that bear i. Their dis- 
Indian names, such as Narra- tribution 
gansett, Erie, Niagara, Huron, Ottawa, 
Illinois, Dakota, Pueblo, and Sioux City. 

Some of the tribes were true savages; 
others, not so savage, may be classed as 
barbarians. The barbarians 2. Their civ- 
raised “Indian corn,” pump- illzatlon 
kins, and tobacco; they baked pottery ; 
used tools and weapons made of stone; and 
lived in villages. 

The Indians that were most nearly civi¬ 
lized lived in the southwestern part of what 
is now the United States, in Mexico, and in 
Central America. Much of that region is 
arid, but the Indians raised crops by irri¬ 
gation, and built houses of stone and sun- 
dried brick (Fig. 37). These houses, called 
















PLANTS , ANIMALS , yUVD PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA 


27 



Fig. 37. —An Indian Pueblo in New Mexico, called the Taos Pueblo. It is made of adobe, or sun-dried brick, 

and to enter the rooms the Indians must first climb a ladder. 


pueblos , were used partly as homes for pro¬ 
tection from the neighboring savages, and 
partly as storehouses for grain. 

The most noted among these Indians 
were the Aztecs, who lived in and near the 
region where the City of Mexico now 
stands. They had a much better govern¬ 
ment than the barbarous and savage tribes; 
they mined gold and silver, and made 
various articles out of these metals; they 
wove blankets, and ornamented their pot¬ 
tery and their buildings in an artistic 
manner. Living the quiet life of the 
farmer, the Aztecs preferred peace to war, 
and a settled home to the nomadic life of 
the hunter. 

Although some tribes thus approached 
civilization, the Indians, as a race, never 
3. Why they became a powerful people, 
never became There are several reasons for 
more powerful ^llis 

In the first place, there were never very 
many Indians. There are probably nearly 
as many now living in the United States as 


ever lived here. Yet all of them together 
number only a little over a (1) Because of 
quarter of a million, or about their small 
the number of persons now number 
living in Washington, the capital of our 
country. 

Again, instead of forming a union, and 
living at peace with one another, they were 
divided into many independ- (2) Theirdivi . 
ent tribes. Each tribe had a sion into many 
certain section over which it independent 
could roam and hunt, but if tllJCS 
it went beyond this, war might follow. 
War did follow very often, and thus they 
were constantly weakened by fighting. 

The level nature of a large part of the 
country greatly increased this danger of 
war, and prevented any one (3) The Uml 
tribe from advancing in civi- nature of the 
lization much beyond its neigh- wunt,l J 
bors. Had the surface of North America 
been very mountainous, there might have 
been some places where a tribe would be 
protected by surrounding mountain walls. 




28 


NORTH AMERICA 


Then those Indians might have dared to 
devote themselves to other work than war; 
and they might even have collected wealth 
and developed important industries. 

But the vast plains of the Mississippi 
Valley, and the extensive plains and low 
mountains of the East, afforded little pro¬ 
tection. If any one tribe had built good 
homes in this section, and collected treasures 
within them, the neighboring Indians would 
surely have attacked them. The Aztecs 
were constantly in danger from this cause. 
However, the fact that they were partly 
protected by mountains and deserts, was 
one of the reasons why they became more 
civilized than the Indians of the Northeast. 

The fact that the Indians had no domestic 
animals for use in agriculture, was another 

(4) Absence of reas0n wb 7 the ) T did not make 

domestic more progress. The horse, 

animals cow, ass, sheep, goat, and hog 

are of great service in supplying food and 
materials for clothing, or for helping in 
farm work. Without them farm work be¬ 
comes the worst drudgery, because it is 
then necessary to do all the work by hand. 
Since the Indians had none of these animals 
to help them, they could do little farming. 

Still another reason was lack of food. Al¬ 
though there was much game, the supply 
was never sufficient to support 

(5) Lack oi rood a t | ense population for a long 

period. Even the scattered Indian popula¬ 
tion was obliged to wander about in search 
of it. This prevented them from living 
quietly in one place, and finding time for 
improvement. 

All these facts helped to prevent the 
Indians from becoming civilized. On the 
other hand, the fact that they were not 
better civilized was a great advantage to 
the white men ; for that made it easier to 
obtain possession of the New World. 

The astonishment of Europe was great 
when it was proved that there were vast 
territories on this side of the 
The Spaniards Atlantic held only by savages. 

America was pictured as containing all sorts 


of treasures, and European nations outdid 
one another in fitting out expeditions to 
take possession of them. 

The Spaniards naturally led, for at that 
time they were one of the most powerful 
nations of Europe; and besides, 1 section of 
they had sent Columbus on his the continent 
voyage of discovery. Colum- taken b y them 
bus sailed from Palos, in Spain, on his first 
voyage, and his ships were carried by the 
winds south westward to the West Indies, 
a point much farther south than Spain 
itself. On a globe find the point on our 
coast that is about as far north as Madrid. 

The section reached by the Spaniards had 
a climate somewhat like that of their own 
country, and they easily made themselves 
at home there. Soon they came into pos¬ 
session of most of South America, Central 
America, Mexico, and the southwestern 
part of the United States (Fig. 38). The 
Spaniards had one advantage over the Eng¬ 
lish and French, who settled farther north ; 
the portion of the continent that they dis¬ 
covered is so narrow that they easily crossed 
it. Thus they were able to explore both 
the Atlantic and the Pacific coast. It was 
largely because of this fact that the Spanish 
settled the western coast as far north as 
San Francisco. 

While robbing the Aztecs of immense 
quantities of gold and silver, 2 Theirtreat 
the Spaniards introduced many ment of the 
Spanish laws and customs ; natives 
in addition they cruelly mistreated the na¬ 
tives, killing many and enslaving others, 
forcing them to work in the mines and fields. 

Although Spanish-speaking people still 
occupy Mexico and Central g ^ 
America, Spain herself has Spaniards have 
now lost all hold upon this not held their 
continent. Her last American temtor y 
colonies, Cuba and Porto Rico, were re¬ 
cently given up. 

One of the reasons why the Spaniards 
have not been more successful is the climate 
of the section which they settled. In hot 
countries so little energy is required to pro- 



.oof osoi oOir o<;ii o0"t 


d 

»—i 



Map showing the claims of France, England, and Spain upon the central part of North America in 1760. 































30 


NORTH AMERICA 


vide food and shelter that the people do not 
need to exert themselves ; and hence they 
do, not do so. With but slight effort the 
Central American can find bananas, or other 
nourishing food, at almost any season of the 
year ; why then should he work ? The 
people, therefore, become too lazy to im¬ 
prove their condition. A large part of the 
region settled by the Spaniards is too warm 
to produce people of energy. 

Another reason why the Spaniards did not 
have better success is found in their relation 
to the Indians. Although robbing and 
enslaving them, they intermarried with 



The French 


Fig. 39. — Mexican two-wlieeled cai-t with wooden wheels, such as a back¬ 
ward people might use. 

them freely, so that a large portion of the 
people are now half-breeds. These half- 
breeds are an ignorant class, far inferior to 
the Spaniards themselves, and so backward 
(Fig. 39) that they still follow many of the 
customs of the Aztecs. 

The French began their settlements in a 
very different quarter, being 
early attracted to our coast by 
the excellent fishing on the Newfoundland 
Banks. Soon the fur trade with the Indians 
proved profitable, and the 
thek^ttiT- ° f French took possession of 

ments, with Nova Scotia and the region 

reasons along the St. Lawrence River 

and the Great Lakes. 

The value of the fur trade, together 
with a desire to, convert the Indians to 
Christianity, led the French as far west as 


Wisconsin and to the headwaters of the 
Mississippi River. Making their way 
southward to the mouth of that river, they 
took possession of the whole Mississippi 
Valley (Fig. 38), calling it Louisiana in 
honor of their king, Louis XIV. In order 
to hold this vast territory, they established 
a chain of trading posts and forts from the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. 
One of the most important of these forts 
was built where Pittsburgh now stands. 
Many places in the St. Lawrence and Mis¬ 
sissippi valleys still have French names ; 
for example, Lake Champlain, Marquette in 
Michigan, La Salle in Illinois, 
St. Louis, and New Orleans. 
Can you name others ? 

The climate of the French 
territory was, on the whole, 
more favorable „ „ 

2. Some reasons 
than that of the Why they have 

Spanish country; lost this ter - 

f or, though rather ritory 

severe in the St. Lawrence 

Valley, it was neither hot 

enough to make people lazy, 

nor so cold as to discourage 

them. One of the greatest 

difficulties was that the few 

scattered settlers were unable to protect all 

of the vast territory to which the French 

laid claim. Also, the French intermarried 

with the Indians and adopted some of their 

customs, although not to so great an extent 

as the Spaniards. 

The Spanish and French left only a 
narrow strip along the Atlantic coast for 
other nations. Among those , 

who made settlements there 
were the Dutch in New York, tiUirearher ° 
and the Swedes in Delaware ; settlements 
but the English soon obtained the lead. 
The English captured New York City 
(then called New Amsterdam) from the 
Dutch, and made settlements along most of 
the coast from Florida to Nova Scotia. 

In several respects the portion that fell 
to the English seemed much less desirable 





THE UNITED STATES 


31 


than that held by the Spanish and French. 
Yet the English-speaking race has managed, 

2 Territory n °t ° n ty ^his, ^ut even 

now occupied to add to it most of the posses- 

by English- sions of the other two. At 

speaking people p resent ^ime, the control 

of the entire continent, except Mexico, 
Central America, and a few small islands, 
is in the hands of either the United States 
or Great Britain. 

There are, of course, good reasons for this 
remarkable result. No doubt, differences in 
3. Reasons the characters of these three 

for this races is one cause. Yet there 

are others also, as is shown in the following 
paragraphs. 

The temperate climate of the central 
portion of North America is one of the best 
in the world for the production of people 
of energy. The warm summers allowed 
abundant harvests ; while the long, cold 
winters forced the settlers to work hard in 
order to store up supplies for the cold 
season ; but, although they had to work a 
great deal, they still had time and energy 
left for improvement. 

Again, the English were less cruel than 
the Spaniards in their treatment of the 
Indians; but, unlike both French and 
Spanish, most of the English would not 
intermarry with savages. Thus it happened 
that, in the wars with the French, the Eng¬ 
lish could act with more intelligence, speed, 
and force ; for they were not hindered by 
partly civilized half-breeds. There was 
one disadvantage, however: the Indians 
became enemies of the English, and in the 
wars between the English and French most 
of them fought on the French side. 

Finally, the fact that the English were 
hemmed in by forest-covered mountains on 
the west, and by the French and Spanish 
on the north and south, also proved an ad¬ 
vantage. On that account, they were kept 
close together ; and when wars arose, they 
were better able to combine their forces. 

These are some of the chief reasons why 
the English-speaking race has won its way 


on the continent against both the Spanish 
and the French. 

1. What is the influence of climate on plants and 
animals? 2. Describe the plants of the Far North. 
3. What animals are found in the 
Far North? What can you tell ^ evi ® w 
about them ? 4. What about the ^ ues 10ns 
plant life in our western arid lands? 5. Describe 
the animal life in that region. 6. Describe the 
plant life in the temperate portion of North America 
outside of the arid lands. 7. Tell about the animal 
life in the same region. 8. What native plants and 
animals are likely to continue here long in the 
future? 9. What is the condition of plant life in 
the torrid zone? 10. Of animal life? 11. What 
was the condition of the Indians who formerly lived 
here? 12. Give several reasons why they did not 
become more powerful. 13. What portion of the 
continent was taken possession of by the Spaniards ? 
14. How did they treat the natives ? 15. Give some 
reasons why they have not held their territory. 
16. What portion of the continent was taken by the 
French, and why? 17. State some reasons why 
they have lost this territory. 18. Where were the 
earlier English settlements? 19. How much of the 
continent is now in control of English-speaking 
people ? 20. Give some reasons for this remarkable 
fact. 

1. Examine some century and cactus plants. 
2. Find some furniture made of mahogany or other 
tropical wood. 3. Visit a green¬ 
house to see orchids. 4. Collect Suggestions 
pictures of native plants and animals of North 
America. 5. Collect samples of different American 
woods. 

III. The United States 

i. General Facts 

On Figure 8 we see that the United 
States occupies the central Location and 
part of North America, ex- area 
tending from ocean to ocean. 

Aside from Alaska, which belongs to us, 
the only countries on our north are Canada, 
Newfoundland, and Greenland. On our 
south are Mexico and the several small 
countries of Central America. Trace our 
boundaries on the north and south. What 
portions are artificial? What portions 
natural ? Is the distance across the United 
States greater from east to west, or from 
north to south ? flow much greater ? 




innij 


ancou' 




.nitolnn 


fL. ofthi 

\ .Woods' 


3 Crook‘ 

Pffifil 


SMArtCK 


Aberdeen 




^HSTOHet 
^TiONai ' 


YcUowato 


•ad 


IERRE 


Mankato 


•BLACK 


Niobrara 


Sioux 

SKA 


Sacka' 


, -a=> 3 

;CO^- . '£) 

b Beatrice * 


blic.a 


; Denver 

|r a d-<^ 

^l or 2 do > 


Wichita' 


■escort 


AOB eVsS 


Ardmore 


.USTI 


Houston 


ialvestor 


Laredo 


Monterc 


Cuiiacan 


tropic 


i^ANcER 

UNITED STATES 

WEST Eli \ PART 

Scale of Miles 


Durango 


NlazatlanV? 


C.San Lucas 


Tampico 1 


S. Luis Potosi 


Greenwich 


130 ° 


FIG. 40. 













































































Winnipeg 


•egosis 


'English 


L.of 

Woods] 


Devils L. C5 
.rarfd$\Forks 


■Crook; 


>Yan e 


Bisma 


|Aber< 


River 


\WateVt4wn*c- 


PierreI 


pfc^ucKu i. 


Mankato 


0) 

JL e *4 


'long 


lapW\eU0iV 
K-a' ai»afS ?— I 


't. notice ^i Mil W&'ffi 


DavenpprV 
HNES (x 


^^\JmahaL- 

Lincoln 

Beatrice^ ' 


•unci] 


Peoria 

DanvH 


uncie- 


Smoky mil 


iE/st 

pt.Loms 


TOPEKA I CM 


l€ *(ipeak e B. 

k, JW ie SJ 


Wichitr 


Green 


Jbp'in 

OZARK 
MTS •_ S 


Winfieldv 3 


mfA SHV 

? T E / 

iMempbi^ 


Ay\\mh 

C.^ ecir 


JUattSU 00 ' 


Ok ahoma 


Ardmor.e 


^Santee * 

•Charleston 


Dallas 


Waco' 


:ksonvU,ie 
St.Johns _ 

SrgtAug^' 16 


V Orleans C.San Bias, 
V? [>elta of the 
™ Mississippi R- 


iBeauiuont 


Liston 


Galveston 


Laredo 


Miami 


Brownsville 


C.Snb/e 

West 


BAlHA.W* 


Monterey 


anobos » 


UNTTE 1 ) STATES 

EASTERN PART 

.New York 

_.Boston 


Fl° 

TROPIC, 

“Mat an 


CANCER 


'islands 


ctoria 


Havanj 


acvclin 


Cities with over 1,000,000 - 

Cities unth 500,000 to 1,000,000- 

Cities with 200.000 to 500,000- 

Other Places -—-- 

Capitals with less than 200,000- 

Scale of Miles 


‘o/'ueg'os 

Camay, 


Buffalo 


iTampico 


..Denver 

.Dover 


WILLIAMS ENGRAVIN6 CO., N.Y. 


Greenwich 


Loncitude 90° West 


FIG. 40, 









































































34 


NORTH AMERICA 



The area of the United States is about 
3,000,000 square miles, which is more than 
four times the area of Mexico. Yet ours is 
not the largest country on the continent, for 
the area of Canada is greater than that of 
the United States and Alaska together. 

Figure 43 shows the part of the United 
States that was settled before 1790, when 
Population and George Washington was Presi- 
its distribution dent for the first time. What 
in 1790 states do you find that had no 

inhabitants other than Indians? Which 
had only scattered settlements, such as forts 
and small villages ? Each of the cities 
shown on this map had a population of over 
5000. What are their names ? How about 
Chicago and St. Louis ? All together there 
were only a little over 3,000,000 white men 
here at that time. 

Our present population is about 
Our present 102,000,000. The present 
population population of Canada is over 
8,000,000, of Mexico about 15,000,000, and 


of Central America over 5,000,000. Not 
only have we more inhabitants than the 
other countries of North America combined, 
but we have more than all the countries of 
North and South America together. Ours 
has plainly been the favorite country for 
settlers in the New World. 

This remarkably rapid increase in popula¬ 
tion has, to a laige extent, Reasons for 
been due to the number of this rapid 
foreigners who have come increase 
here to live. 

The early introduction of slavery has 
resulted in greatly increasing our num¬ 
bers. There are now nearly , 

v iNeeroes 

10,000,000 colored people in 

the United States, which is about one tenth 

of our entire population. 

Europe and Asia have poured forth a 
steady stream of immigrants 2 Immigrants 
during the last one hundred from Europe 
years. Probably, in all, as and Asia 
many as 32,000,000 foreigners have come 










nY' j »Juy ull -2 3- 






fddTss .»«■«•, 


5'flCi' a ? B P^^o 


d 

t—i 

















































3G 


NORTH AMERICA 


to our shores to 
live since 1790, 
and until recently 
were coining at 
the rate of about 
a million a year. 

Nearly every for¬ 
eign nation is rep- 
resented, and 
upon the streets of 
our larger cities 
the languages of 
most of the civil¬ 
ized peoples of 
the globe may be 
heard. 

The greater 
portion of our im¬ 
migrants have 
come from north¬ 
ern Europ e, 
especially from 
the British Isles, 

Germany, and the Scandinavian Peninsula; 



Fig. 44. — Density of population in North America at the 
present time. 


and many of them 
have settled in 
the cities. More 
recently a flood of 
immigration has 
come from south¬ 
ern Europe. At 
one time the 
Chinese began to 
come in great 
numbers, and laws 
preventing their 
coming had to be 
passed. We have 
laws, also, exclud¬ 
ing paupers, crim¬ 
inals, diseased 
people, and labor¬ 
ers brought here 
by contract. To 
others the country 
is free. 

Figure 44 shows 
the distribution of our population according 
to the last census. Where is Distribution 
the population most dense ? of our popuia- 
Note that more than half of tion 
the whole country has, on the average, not 
more than twenty-five persons for each 
square mile. Point out this portion. 

According to this map, which portion of 
North America has fewest settlers? What 
part of Canada is most densely populated ? 
Of Mexico? Of Central America? Ob¬ 
serve that the coast of the United States is 
most densely settled, while the coast of 
Mexico and Central America has few people, 
compared to the interior. Can you recall 
any explanation of this ? 

It is natural that the eastern section of 
the United States should have been settled 
first, because most of the im- Reasons for 
migrants have come from such distribu- 
Europe. Many of them, of tl0n 
course, have gone farther 
west, but many have re- the East 
mained in the great cities on the coast. 
Each large city there has its Italian quarter, 



Fig. 43.—Distribution of population in the United States in 17‘JO. 



























THE UNITED STATES 


37 


2. Many people 
collect at the 
best shipping 
and manufactur¬ 
ing points 


its Russian quarter, its Jewish quarter, ami 
so forth. 

The transportation of goods is one of the 
great industries, and this business alone has 
attracted large numbers of 
people to certain points. The 
best shipping points, moreover, 
are often the best manufac¬ 
turing centers, for people 
manufacture goods at those places where 
raw materials can easily reach them, and 
where finished articles can be shipped away 
cheaply in all directions. The excellent 
shipping points, therefore, attract people 
because of the manufacturing as well as 
the commerce; for these industries give 
them work to do. 

It is for these reasons that the fine har¬ 
bors on our two coasts, and the best ship¬ 
ping centers on our interior water ways, 
have attracted the greatest number of 
people. On Figure 44 note the sections 
that have the densest population. Our 
eastern coast, from Boston southwest to 
Washington, has more great centers of popu¬ 
lation than any other equal area in North 
America. Name several of them. What 
great cities do you find along the Great 
Lakes and the Mississippi River and its 
larger tributaries ? There is a dense popula¬ 
tion, also, about San Francisco Bay, as there 
is around New York Bay, and for a similar 
reason. Find other centers of dense popula¬ 
tion on the Pacific coast and in the interior. 

The greatest industry of all is farming, 
about one third of .all the men 


3. Others are 
attracted to the 
best farming 
sections 

(1) Extent of 
the Mississippi 
Valley 


of the United States being en¬ 
gaged in that one occupation. 
That fact largely explains the 
presence of so many people in 
the Mississippi Valley. 

This broad trough between 


the mountain systems of the West and East 
is one of the most extensive fertile farming 
regions in the world. What is the length 
and breadth of this level region (Fig. 41)? 
There is only one mountainous section in 
this vast area, and that, called the Ozark 


Mountains in Missouri, extends also into 
Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. 

Not only is this fertile region very exten¬ 
sive, but the climate is favorable to many 
kinds of farm products. On (g) nsfavor- 
Figure 40 find the latitude of able climate 
New Orleans. Note that it is not very far 
from the Tropic of Cancer, which marks the 
northern boundary of the torrid zone. How 
near does Florida come to that zone ? 

What is the latitude of our northern 
boundary ? Observe how very far it is 
from that line to the Arctic Circle (Fig. 8), 
which marks the southern boundary of the 
frigid zone. It is plain not only that the 
United States lies in the temperate zone, but 
that it lies almost entirely in the southern 
half of that zone. That allows an abundance 
of heat in summer, even in the northern 
part of the Mississippi Valley. Thus the 
entire Mississippi Valley has a temperature 
that is very favorable to agriculture. 

The rainfall is likewise favorable in most 
parts. Only far to the west of the Missis¬ 
sippi River, on the Great Western Plains 
(Fig. 41), is the quantity of rain too small 
for agriculture. From the Great Western 
Plains eastward to the Atlantic Ocean the 
rainfall is sufficient for good crops. 

While the Mississippi Valley is the most 
extensive farming section in the United 
States, there is also much farming farther 
east and in the West. The favorable cli¬ 
mate and good soil in the East, in the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley, and in parts of the West 
have helped greatly in attracting settlers. 

Mining as well as manufacturing, com- 

merce, and farming have at- „ stm _ 

tracted great numbers of are drawn to 

people to the eastern half of the mining and 

the United States. Most of s “* i0 ” s 

(1) Mining in 

our hard coal is mined among the Eust 
the Appalachians of Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Most of our soft coal and iron ore, 
and much of our copper, also, are found east 
of the Mississippi River. These kinds of 
mining, therefore, increase the population 
in the East by many hundreds of thousands. 



38 


NORTH AMERICA 


The mountainous section in the West, in 
which mining is important, is far more ex- 

(2) Mining in tensive than the Appalachians. 

the We8t This is the region of the Cor¬ 

dillera, mentioned on page 8. Beginning 
at the Pacific coast. (Fig. 41), you see the 
mountains called the Coast Ranges, parts of 
which rise abruptly from the water’s edge. 
Eastward from these are the Sierra Nevada 
and Cascade Ranges, in which there are 
many lofty peaks. Farther east are the 
Rocky Mountains, which extend entirely 
across the United States, into Canada and 
Alaska on the north, and far into Mexico on 
the south. Extensive plateaus, with short 
mountain ranges, lie between the Rocky 
Mountains and the Sierra Nevada-Cascade 
Ranges. Find the names of the two prin¬ 
cipal plateaus on Figure 41. 

There are many mines in this section, but 
they are scattered over the vast territory. 
The precious metals, and much copper and 
other metals are found there ; but far less 
coal and iron ore are mined in the West 
than in the Appalachians. The mining 
industry, therefore, has brought a much 
smaller and more scattered population to 
the Cordillera. 

In much of the western half of the United 
States grazing is the leading industry. 

(3) Grazing That calls for a very small 
in the West population, for reasons that 
you can give. Over wide areas grazing is 
the only industry, because much of the land 
is arid or desert. Find the Great Basin 
(Fig. 41), which is mainly desert. The 
reason for so dry a climate is that the prin¬ 
cipal winds for this region blow from the 
Pacific; and, since they lose most of their 
moisture on the high mountains, the low¬ 
lands and plateaus between the mountain 
ranges suffer from drought. 

Figure 44 shows most of the western half 
of our country to be very thinly settled, 
but there are several places that have a 
dense population. Point them out. The 
special reasons why so many people have 
settled at these points you will learn later. 


Our country is so large that it is necessary 
to divide it into sections in order to study it 
in proper detail. Accordingly, Reason for 
the states have been grouped studying the 
into five sections, of which United States 
the first is the New England in sections 
Group. The others, in their order, are the 
Middle Atlantic States, the Southern 
States, the Central States, and the Western 
States. 

As you study each of these sections, a 
very important point to notice is the scale 
upon which each map is drawn, importance of 
For example, in Figure 46, an watching the 
inch and a half represents scale of maps 
about one hundred miles. According to that 
scale, how long is the state of Connecticut ? 
Find what the scale is on the map, Figure 
64. Using that scale, find the distance from 
New York to Buffalo. Using both maps, 
find the distance from Philadelphia to Bos¬ 
ton, by way of New York. When studying 
a map, whether in this book, on the wall, or 
in an atlas, it is always important to first 
observe its scale. 


1. State the location and area of the United 
States. 2. What was our population and its distri¬ 
bution in 1790? 3. What is our p ev j ew 

present population, and how does it n 
compare with that of other countries ” 
in the New World? 4. IIow many colored people 
are there in the United States? 5. What immi¬ 
grants are allowed to come here? IIow many have 
come, in all ? 6. What is the present distribution 

of the population of North America? 7. Show why 
the place where the immigrants land is one reason 
for so great a population on our eastern coast. 
8. Explain the influence of our best shipping and 
manufacturing points on the distribution of our 
people. 9. What farming sections have attracted 
great numbers of people ? Give reasons. 10. How 
has mining affected the population in the East? 
11. AVhy is the western half of the United States so 
thinly settled? 12. Show, by an example, that it is 
important when studying maps to observe the scale. 

1. Can you tell why Florida is so thinly settled? 

2. Show the dangers that we run, in receiving so 

many immigrants. 3. What reasons „ 

- j! t \ ■ u- riv.• Suggestions 
can you give tor forbidding Chinese 

immigration ? 4. What objection do you see to al¬ 
lowing an Italian quarter, a Chinese quarter, etc., in 
our large cities ? 




Fig. 45.— Relief map of New England. 







70° 




47-X 


D ^ O 


r 


M 




Ij 


h' 


J 


N 


X 


ISLHOF ORLEAN 

rebec c 




Caribou^ 
Ft.: 


P<res 


<5Y 




\Rivc 


n> 


St. 


o 


ANA 


Montreal 


\ 


A 


s'- 


VSherbrooke 


U 


T', 


//Y! 

' rs\d% bQ 


/■' La “ V I ] 

y Vy t^ Mcmphremagoj U V yA/^Scl, 

vT" M \ 

N fP°Pi’ ) ^ ' 




M 


Heron L.//^ J jtroo* 

D ^ 

Chamberlain } 

"XU 

“7(.7ies»»coo/f A \ 
ntiobscotf VXaArts \l 

D " Mt.Katahdin 

5200'l V 

- 1 Mooschead ^=7)0 )ZJ 

) Lake Bamadumcook 


St?ra?»ci laAitf 


It* 


Q 


* 


i 


, Dover 
Oldtownl o 




i 


Lake . 


Sisquo 

1 °St.Albans . 

<0 


^ 7 l 

’hamplahir u *>\ # 

4304 o 




DIRQNDACK \ 


4304 ^ o C ~ - 
Burlington < St.Johnstjury 
VL- —Montpelier 
Ferns- 

oburg ^ q oEarre 


Randolph 


t> r / CloVergennes w. 

) (j NTA I N S (AWistol^ j,( 

/ Middl'^buryP UJ l 

(Brandon g ) oBetheI 

1 ^ Hartford 


& 


w 


\ 


QLaht f 
George j 


1 ( \ Rumtord Falls 

Berlins i 

> 7 1 Cx»M in 


Skowhegan 

airfield Vi/ 


, \ Bangor 7o 
vhetVnn rs) Si 

v 


:er.\u 

vo, 


.illeS 


•'Han' 

D v9>sf/#Qt \Vhiteo7 0 Lebanon 
>Fa;_ V?ton River ^/Grafton 


Ludlow 0 

\ . w 

Spring! 

Cheste; 


eldo 


Franklin 

ef° $ 

Claremont 


Littleton G^rhaiji^ nJr Paris ^ 

CO : ®’ 'Mt.Wa^iington 0 Ha’lloweOl ‘ 

WH ' TC M lfW Auburn Fe^iato: 

Haverhill/ \ |! J i 1 

Conway L-V \ ^ . 

^ 0» tm Brunswick? 

O S 5 

<A . 

_ , • AS^stbrook _ w , 

Luke I c 1 Casco Bug 

0 WolEboro 'A \Portland 

iWinwepeeaukee 

Laconia^ (Biddeford^ 

nnebunk 


Belfast^ 

T) 




AUGUSTA 
iGardiner 

ocklandj 

r Rich| 




& S 


% Ao>^ ^ 


iB.cf 


r 

•an 


Manchester^ 1 
-- j - lo<X 


OVA] 


Benmngton 
«V ° r>__J 


lellows Falls> 
3 Walpole 


I 

Rochester l 

SomerBwortn^cp S.Her\\ ick 

ojJY ork 
Portsmouth 


H . .Bra ttkborod /)>ona ^ oc | [ ,/ NashuX 
S / a ° / ^‘^ , ^ da ^s)oNo'rthfi7ia7-r/i,. 

^ r *? rUaU_ L4fl) 


La ‘^; 




Albany 

o 

, ■'r-Pittsfleid Ja 

? oL j M A\ s/o 


«/ .) f v 

- - sj, _ T \ 


°!Sr , S(ST* 

-i-imik spsss* 


IIIIIOIUI * yy-—V-—< 

Fitchburgo Lp’W r e77'< 

Gardner!' .\ s ' *° Sn*. £r* 

A s“7a | 


, .Newburyport 
> Cape >4n/i 


A 


w 


. BASS ROCKS 
Gloucester 

Salem 


b^^sMsa *. 


o 


Massachusetts 


s - T 5mS>^ 


■Jiiilirf ^ A°«tCd, \ CapeCqd 

1 - - XX Vfl \ CTftioVinc 


t: 


Brocktono 

Qetitral 


Hartford J P <°t d .»4 P ^-- 


lymouth 

Cajyt; Cod 
Bag 


W aterbury 0 
| .\augatuok 0 Meriden 1 ' 


Pawtucket^L' 3 Taunton 

T j \ ‘S.New-jjedfor! 


II 


St! 


| .4nsonm 
: Derb 

Bridgeport 

Norwalk 

umfordS 


New ! 


*%Monomoy Pt. 

\ 


Nantucket 
Sound 

NANTUCKET 


-j-Ottt. 


IS 


ittt 10 












^0 , 


b 


NEW ENGLAND STATES 

Scale of Miles 


0 20 40 

Cities with over 500,000_ 

Cities with 100,000 to 500,000 
Cities with 25,000 to 100,000 

Smaller places _ 

Capitals unth less than 25,000_ 
Capitals 0 


60 


30 100 

_Boston 

Providence 

-Hartford 

.!-Hanover 

_Augusta 

Othe *• Cities o 

WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N.Y. 


74 3 


Longitude West from Greenwich 


68 ° 


FIG. 4G, 


































































THE UNITED ST A TES 


41 


2 . New England 

1. Name the states of this group. 2. Whatisthe 

capital of each? 3. Where are the mountains? 

,, , 4; Into what bay does the Penobscot 

Map Study River flo „, y 5 f what large islalK , 

lies just east of it? G. Find three large lakes. In 
which state is each? 7. Name and locate several of 
the largest cities. 8. AY hat cape is about twenty- 
five miles north of Boston? 9. What cape is south¬ 
east of Boston? 10. Find Massachusetts Bay. 
11. Find Cape Cod Bay. 12. AVhat two large islands 
lie southeast of Massachusetts? 13. AVhat two bays 
are near them? 14. AA hat large island lies south of 
Connecticut? 15. In what state is it (Fig. 64)? 

16. AVhat waters separate it from Connecticut? 

17. Name the three largest rivers of Maine; the 
largest one in New Hampshire; the two largest in 
Connecticut. Trace the course of each. 

Since the Appalachian Mountains extend 
across New England, most of its surface 
Reasons for e *ther hilly or mountainous. 

Near the coast the hills are 
low, but the land gradually 
rises toward the interior until 
it becomes a low plateau. This 
plateau is crossed by river valleys that cut 
into it in every direction. The valleys are 
usually several hundred feet deep, with 
steep sides, so that the surface there is very 
irregular. 

In the western and northern parts of New 
England, the surface becomes quite moun¬ 


its irregular 
surface 

1. The moun¬ 
tains 


tainous (Fig. 47). There are some peaks, 
like Mount Monadnock in southern New 
Hampshire, that rise singly above the pla¬ 
teau upland ; but others are found in 
groups, or clusters, as the White Mountains 
of northern New Hampshire, for example. 
Still other mountains are grouped in irregu¬ 
lar ranges, of which the Green Mountains 
of Vermont, and the Taconic Mountains 
and Berkshire Hills of western Massachu¬ 
setts, are examples. 

Many of the mountain peaks rise three 
or four thousand feet above sea level; but 
Mount Washington, in the White Moun¬ 
tains, has an elevation of over a mile, and 
Mount Katahdin, in Maine, is nearly as high. 
In Figure 46 find the various mountain 
peaks and ranges named. 

On page 12 you learned that the Great 
Glacier made many changes in our country. 
This glacier extended over the 2. The Great 
whole of New England, and for Glacier 
a long time its front rested on the islands 
just south of this group of states. Indeed, 
Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, 
and Long Island are made in part of 
moraine hills and sandy plains that were 
built in front of the vast ice sheet. 

As the ice melted away toward the north, 
it left moraines and other deposits farther 
north. Some of these dammed up the 



Fig. 47. — A winter view of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. 









42 


NORTH AMERICA 


streams and formed the many lakes that 
dot the surface of New England. Others 
turned the streams from tlieir courses, and 
caused their waters to tumble in many 
rapids and falls. Besides this, the glacier 
plowed away the soil from many hill slopes, 
leaving bare rock ledges. It also carried 
much rock into the valleys and on to the 
lower hilly land. It was in this way that 
much of the farm land became strewn with 
bowlders, as shown in Figure 23. 

The sinking pf the coast has given New 
England a very irregular outline. What 
3. The sinking have you already learned about 
of the coast this (p. 15)? Name some of 
the larger capes, bays, and islands that were 
thus formed. 

The mountain rocks of New England 
are mostly hard, including many granites. 
Where the sinking of the land has lowered 
these into the sea, the beating of the waves 
has removed the soil and exposed the bare 
rock. This is why so much of the irregular 
coast is rock bound, and has such grand 
scenery. 

Maine does not reach quite so far north 
as do several of our Western States. Name 

them (Fig. 40). Yet this sec- 

The climate 

tion ties tar enough north to 
have a rather severe climate; and a cold 
ocean current near the coast makes the cli¬ 
mate somewhat cooler than it would other¬ 
wise be. This is called the Labrador cur¬ 
rent, because it Hows past the Labrador 
coast. It is a slowly moving stream of 
ocean water, many miles wide, that begins 
in the Arctic Ocean and flows southward 
along the coast of Nova Scotia and New 
England as far as Cape Cod (p. 243). 

On the other hand, there is a current of 
warm water that makes the southern portion 
of New England warmer than it would 
otherwise be. This current, called the 
Gulf Stream, comes from the Gulf of Mexico 
and flows northeast, out into the Atlantic 
Ocean (Fig. 312). East of New England 
it is much farther from land than the Lab¬ 
rador current. 


The prevailing winds in New England 
blow from the west. Every few days, 
however, the direction of the wind changes 
to the east or south, and the air then comes 
from the ocean, often bringing rain. The 
winds that blow from the east and north¬ 
east are cool in summer and very chilly in 
winter, since they are cooled in passing 
over the Labrador current. They often 
cause heavy snows in winter, and rain and 
fog in summer. Those winds that blow 
from the south, on the other hand, are 
warmed in passing over the Gulf Stream. 
Largely for that reason, the southern part 
of New England is much warmer, and has 
little snow in winter. 

In the days of the early settlers, most of 
New England was covered with forests, and 
one of the first products sent Lumbering 
back to England was lumber, i. Extent of 
Now the woods have been the forests 
cleared away from much of the land, but 
where it is too steep or rocky for farming, 
large tracts of forest still remain. 

For instance, there are large tracts of 
land in northern Maine, New Hampshire 
(Fig. 48), and Vermont, as well as in 
parts of the three southern states, that are 
still covered with timber. Standing on the 
summit of Mount Ivatahdin, one sees.only 
a vast wilderness of trees in all directions. 
The nearest cultivated land is twenty-five 
miles to the east, while the unbroken forest 
stretches much farther away to the north 
and west. 

Winter is the busy season for cutting 
timber in this wilderness, for the swamps, 
which are numerous, and in 2. Cutting of 
summer impassable, are then the timber 
frozen. At that season, also, the snows 
have covered the bowlders and fallen trees, 
and made the surface level enough for 
sleds, loaded with logs, to be drawn through 
the woods. 

Usually fifty or more men are necessary 
to a logging camp. With axes in hand, 
they go through the woods chopping down 
all the trees that are large and sound enough 




THE UNITED STATES 


43 




3. Floating 
the logs to the 
mills 


for good lumber. The limbs are then 
chopped off, and the logs are dragged by 
horses to the banks of the 
nearest stream (Fig. 49). 

When the snow melts in 
the spring, the cutting is 
over and another 
busy season be¬ 
gins. The ice 
on the rivers breaks up, the 
streams are swollen by the 
melting snows, and the logs 
are whirled off downstream 
in the swift current. Fre¬ 
quently, however, even this 
flood of water is not sufficient 
to carry them. In such cases, 
in order to provide more 
water, dams are placed across 
the streams, or at the outlet 
of lakes. When more water 
is needed, the dams are 
opened, and a flood is poured 
into the stream. In this way 
immense numbers of logs are floated, or 
“ driven ” downstream, forming what the 
lumbermen call a “log drive.” 


others are held back by it. If the “ jam ” is 
not speedily removed, the entire stream 


Fig. 48. — A forest-covered mountain slope in the New Hampshire moun¬ 
tains, where a large part of the surface is still occupied by forest. 


may become blocked. Such a condition is 
called a log jam (Fig. 50), and it is the 
business of the log drivers to prevent jams 
by freeing the logs that be¬ 
come thus lodged. 

Some of the logs are stopped 
near waterfalls, far upstream, 
where they are sawed into 
boards, laths, shingles, etc. ; 
but most of them are carried 
to sawmills as far down the 
river as the current will take 
them. 


Fig. 4!). — Luinbormen at work in winter, drawing the logs on sleds to the 

edge of the stream. 


The work of driving the logs is a very ex¬ 
citing 1 one. The logs often run on to rocks 

o o 

and shoals ; and, as soon as one gets caught. 


During the season for cutting, 

the men go forth early in the 

morning and work 

until late in the Hardshi P s of 
. ,. , the lumber¬ 

evening, eating and , ... 

, ?’ . ° man’s life 

sleeping l n log 

cabins (Fig. 51). Their beds are 

broad shelves of rough boards, 

covered with boughs from the spruce and balsam 

trees; and the camp is often so small that they 

must lie side by side, with scarcely room to turn. 

There is much exposure, too. The men may suffer 










44 


NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 50. — A log jam in a stream in which Ihe logs are being floated from the 
forest. The lumbermen are at work trying to start the logs moving again. 


seriously from the cold, for it is often necessary to 
work when the temperature is far below zero. 

The work of preventing log jams brings even more 
exposure, for the workmen must frequently wade into 
the icy water and ride upon the logs. One may 
often see a man carried along on a single log, cling¬ 
ing to it by means of the sharp spikes in his boots, 
and balancing himself with a long pole. Now and 
then he must jump from log 
to log, as a squirrel springs 
from tree to tree. In this 
way the men are often wet 
from head to foot, and may 
even be thrown into the 
water and drowned. So 
many hardships are con¬ 
nected with lumbering, that 
a lumberman is said to 
become an old man after a 
few years of service. 

The forests of New 
England supply much 
5. Value of 1 u m b e r, 
the forest though far 

less than formerly. 

Woods have another im¬ 
portant use : (hey pre¬ 
vent the rain water 


from running rapidly off 
the land. Where the forest 
has been carelessly destroyed 
by the lumbermen, or by fire, 
the streams rise rapidly after 
every rain and then quickly 
decrease in size. Often there 
is not enough water to run 
the factories that use the 
water power. Thus it be¬ 
comes very important to pre¬ 
serve the forest, and the 
government is planning to set 
aside large areas, at the head 
waters of the streams, as 
forest reservations. 

New England produces 
very little metal, and no 

coal. There are, 

, Quarrying 

however, some x b 

valuable mineral products, 
such as clays for making 
bricks, and stone used mainly 
for building. Among the building stones 
three kinds are of especial value; namely, 
granite, marble, and slate, each of which is 
quarried in large quantities. 

Many of the hills, and even mountains, 
such as Mounts Washington and Katahdin, 


Fig. 51. — Lumbermen and their log cabin in the woods of Maine. 








THE UNITED STATES 


45 



(2) Uses 


are made mainly of granite. But this is 
not often quarried, because it is too difficult 
1 Granite t° ^ raw heavy Stone to 

(l) Where places where it is needed. 

found and The quarries have generally 

quarried been opened or developed 

either close to cities, or else near the sea, 
where the stone may be cheaply shipped. 

One of the oldest stone quarries in the 
country is at Quincy, near Boston (Fig. 46). 
Buildings made of Quincy granite over two 
hundred years ago may still be seen in Bos¬ 
ton. Other quarries are found in and near 
Gloucester and Milford, 

Mass.; Westerly, R.I. ; 

B arre, Vt. ; Concord, N. H.; 
and at several points along the 
Maine coast. 

Much of the granite is used 
for paving stones in the city 
streets, where 
heavy wagons 
pass. For that purpose large 
blocks are split into smaller 
ones of the proper size. 

Many of the large blocks 
are carried by boat to Boston, 

New York, or even as far as 
New Orleans, where they are 
used for curbstones, for build¬ 
ing, and for other purposes. 

Some of the government build¬ 
ings at Washington are made of New Eng¬ 
land granite. Another important use of 
granite is for monuments, columns, and 
other ornamental work. The stone is well 
suited for this purpose because of its beauti¬ 
ful color, which varies in different quarries. 
Some granites are gray, others almost white, 
bluish, or distinctly red; and most kinds 
will take a high polish. 

The most noted marble quarries in the 
United States are near Rutland, Vt. (Fig. 
2. Marble 52), where much of the stone 
(l) Where is white, though some of it is 
quarried streaked with blue. In other 

places in Vermont the colors of the marble 
are quite different, and often very beautiful. 


(2) Uses 


This stone is too soft for paving stones, 
but it is much used for buildings, statues, 
and monuments. Indeed, the 
Rutland marble is one of the 
most common headstones in the cemeteries 
of the Eastern States. Like granite, it 
may be given a high polish. 

Some of the most highly prized marble, mostly 
obtained from foreign countries, is so banded and 
mottled that, when polished, it makes a beautiful 
ornamental stone for interiors of churches and other 
buildings. White marble has been used for many 
centuries as building material. In fact, long before 


Fig. 52. — One of the marble quarries near Rutland, Vt. The stone is 
quarried out in the deep pit on the right, and the blocks are hoisted to 
the surface by the derricks. 


the time of Christ, the Greeks built the marble Par¬ 
thenon upon the Acropolis of Athens (Fig. 454). 
They also chiseled out marble statues, such as that 
of the Venus of Milo, which have become famous on 
account of their beauty. 

Slate rock is quarried in several parts of New 
England, as in eastern Maine and western Massa¬ 
chusetts and Vermont. The value 
of slate is due largely to the fact 
that it splits, or cleaves , so easily that it is readily 
broken into thin slabs with a smooth surface. In 
this way it is made into roofing slate and school 
slates; from it are also made blackboards, slabs for 
wash basins, and stone for use in the interior of 


3. Slate 


buildings. 


Still another raw product of New Eng¬ 
land is fish. When the country was first 
settled, great numbers of various kinds, 










46 


NORTH AMERICA 



especially mackerel, halibut, and cod, were 
found close to the shore. Such names 
Fishing as Cape Cod, Halibut 1 oint, 

1 _ Former abun- Lobster Cove, aild BfiSS IvOcks, 
dance of fish given to places on the New 
England coast, indicate this. Find the 
first of these. 

Fish supplied the early settlers with one 
of their chief foods, and the fishing industry 
soon became important. You will remem¬ 
ber (p. 30) that it was the fishing which 
early attracted the French to the American 
coast, and they still retain the 
right to fish along the New¬ 
foundland shore. 

Fish are now much less 
abundant near the coast, but 

2. Centers of sinCe the y are 

the fishing still found farther 

industry from the shore, 

hundreds of vessels, and thou¬ 

sands of men, are engaged 
solely in catching them. 

Gloucester, which is a center 
for that industry, is the most 
noted fishing port in the United 
States; but Boston, Port¬ 
land, and Provincetown 
also have an important fish 
trade. Locate each. 

Most of the mackerel are 
caught in spring and summer. 

They swim to- Kir . » 

3. Mackerel ,/ ,, 1 IG> 

getlier, on the 

surface of the ocean, in such numbers, or 
schools , as fishermen say, that they may be 
easily seen from a distance. The fishermen 
who cruise about in search of the mackerel 
sail in swift, two-masted vessels, called 
schooners (Fig. 53). When they see a 
“ school," they spring into their great seine 
boats, row over to the fish, drop a large net, 
or seine , into the water, and draw it around 
the “school.” Then the seine is drawn in, 
forming a pocket and trapping the fish. 
In this pocket enough fish are sometimes 
caught to fill hundreds of barrels. Some 
of the fish are taken to port to be sold 


fresh, but most are salted. This method 
of fishing is similar to that which the Dis- 
ciples of Christ used in the Sea of Galilee. 

Halibut and cod cannot be caught with a 
seine, for instead of swimming at the sur¬ 
face, these fish live on the sea 
bottom. They are caught in 
winter as well as summer, 
mainly on the Fishing Banks 
that lie off the coasts of New England and 
Newfoundland. Some of the Gloucester 
fishing vessels, however, go as far 


4. Halibut and 
codfish 

(1) Where 
caught 


A Gloucester lLliing schooner, just leaving port on a fishing trip. 

Greenland and Iceland for halibut and 
codfish. 

Halibut are very large, some weighing 
more than a man, and they are often 
caught upon single lines. Cod- (2) Method of 
fish may be caught in the same catching 
manner, though a trawl (Fig. 54) is more 
commonly used fur cod than for halibut. 
The trawl consists of a number of hooks 
hanging from a single long line, all lowered 
into the water together and left there for 
hours. The fish swallow the bait on the 
hooks, and in this way many are caught at 
one time. 







THE UNITED STATES 


47 



Fig. 54. —Fishermen drawing up a trawl on the Fishing Banks of Newfoundland. The long line, with shorter ones 
hanging from it. with hooks on their ends, is lowered to the bottom. After a while it is drawn up and the fish that 
are on the hooks are taken into the boat. 


(3) Danger of 
such fishing 

and prevent 
then left in 


This kind of fishing is dangerous, because the men 
must venture out in small, flat-bottomed boats, called 
dories, to take the fish off the trawls. 
While they are busy fishing, a storm 
may arise, or a heavy fog come up, 
their return to the vessel. They are 
open boats far out upon the ocean. 
Every year dozens of Gloucester fishermen are lost 
in this manner. 

As in the case of mackerel, codfish are sold either 

fresh or salt; but most of the halibut are sold fresh, 

though some are smoked. In order 

( ) Method of ga ](; or cure the codfish, they are 
marketing ... . . . , . 

split open and cleaned, soaked in 

barrels of brine, and then dried upon the wharf. 

Very often the bones are removed, the skin stripped 

off, and the flesh torn into shreds and packed into 

boxes as boneless cod. Either the salted or boneless 

cod may be seen in almost any grocery, and much 

of it comes from Gloucester. 

Traps, or weirs, are also set for fish. They are 
placed along the shore, and many kinds of fish, such 
as shad, salmon, and bass, swim into 
them and are then unable to find 
their way out. Another kind of fish 
that is caught on the New England coast is the her¬ 
ring, which is smoked and canned in large quanti¬ 
ties at Eastport, Me. 

Lobster fishing is also carried on, especially on the 
coast of Maine. A lobster trap, made of wood and 
weighted with stone, is lowered to the bottom, 
where the lobster lives, crawling around among the 
rocks and seaweed. A fish-head for bait is inside 


5. Other ocean 
foods 


the trap, and the lobster crawls in to get it; but he 
is so stupid that he is rarely able to find his way out. 

Clams, found along many parts of the New Eng¬ 
land coast, live buried in the mud flats which are 
exposed to view at low tide. At such times boys 
and men dig these shellfish out, much as a farmer 
digs potatoes. Another kind of shellfish on the 
New England coast is the scallop; and still another 
is the oyster, which thrives in the shallow water of 
the bays on the southern coast of New England. 


So much of New England is hilly or 
mountainous, and the soil is so strewn with 
bowlders, that farming is not Agriculture 
so extensive an industry as in 1 ImportanC e 
many other parts of the coun- of this industry 
try. In some sections, where the soil is 
very poor and no market is near, farming 
has proved such a failure that many farms 
have been abandoned (Fig. 55). On these, 
the orchards are grown up with weeds, and 
the houses and barns are tumbling down. 
This is especially true in the more hilly 
parts of New England. 

On the other hand, there are some sec¬ 
tions where there is really excellent farm 
land. This is true in the larger valleys, 
particularly the Connecticut Valley, which 
has much level and fertile land. 










48 


NORTH AMERICA 


Each farm usually has a small orchard 
and also produces hay and grain, which are 
2. Products either fed to cattle and horses, 
from the farms 0 r sold. All the farmers keep 
some poultry, selling the chickens and eggs ; 


and some make a business of raising poultry, 
such as hens, turkeys, and ducks. 

A very common occupation is truck farm¬ 
ing. On truck farms various kinds of veg¬ 
etables, like tomatoes, sweet corn, potatoes, 
cucumbers, cabbages, and celery, are care¬ 
fully cultivated ; and these, together with 


Where the farms are so far away from the 
cities that it is impossible to drive to mar¬ 
ket, dairying is common (Fig. 56). So 
much milk is needed in the large cities that 
special arrangements are made for market¬ 


ing it. Special cars, and even whole trains, 
carrying nothing but cans of milk, are run 
to them from far out in the country. A great 
deal of milk is made into butter and cheese, 
sometimes on the farm, but much more com¬ 
monly at creameries, where the work is done 
by machinery. 




Fig. 56. — A herd of dairy cows grazing in the pasture. Their milk is sent to the cities. 


milk and eggs, are sent to the nearest town 
to be sold. The farmer often takes them to 
town himself and sells them from house to 
house, thus securing higher prices than if 
he sold them to a storekeeper. Why ? 


In the Connecticut Valley, the farms 
are often of good size, having fields 
of grain and fine large gardens and 
orchards. There are also extensive fields 
of tobacco. 













THE UNITED STATES 


49 


Strangers traveling through New England, upon 
seeing the hilly surface and rocky soil, are often 
puzzled to understand how the farni- 
3. The market ers can earn enough to build such 
for such prod- , , , f , , . , 

ucts large houses and barns, to turnish 

their homes so well, and to have so 
many books and pictures. The reason is that the 
cities, near at hand, give an excellent market for 
farm products. There are so many people in these 
states, especially in the three southern ones, that 
only a part of the food needed can be raised in this 
section. This insures a ready and profitable mar¬ 
ket for whatever food the land can produce. 


When the Puritans settled New England, 
the articles that they needed had to be 
Manufacturing brought across the ocean at 
l Extent of great expense. At first they 
this industry, imported not only furniture 
with reasons and tools, but even wood for 
the interior of houses, and bricks for the 
walls, fireplaces, and chimneys. Even now, 
in some of the older New England houses, 
one sees doors and rafters that came from 
over the sea long ago. 

Very soon, however, the settlers began to 
make such articles as shoes, cloth, and lum¬ 
ber. Thus manufacturing began early, and 
the industry was greatly aided by the water 
power (Eig. 57). It was also aided by the 
many lakes. These served as reservoirs 
from which the falls and rapids were sup¬ 
plied with water, even during times of 
drought. Many mills and factories sprang 
up near the coast, and later in the interior. 

Thus New England soon became the prin¬ 
cipal manufacturing section of the whole 
country. To-day its many large cities owe 
their growth chiefly to this industry. Hun¬ 
dreds of articles are made, of which those 
composed of wood, cotton, wool, leather, and 
metal are the most important. 

It may seem strange that these kinds 
should be manufactured, since most of these 
raw materials are not produced in great 
quantities in New England. The reason is 
that the abundant waterfalls furnished such 
excellent power that it paid to bring the 
raw materials there to be manufactured. 
Later the people learned to manufacture so 


well, that factories were built even where 
there was no water power, as in Boston, 
where steam power is used. Since coal is 
now cheap, the location of a mill near an 
important railway, or near some other good 
shipping point, is a more important matter 
than its location near water power. 



Fig. 57. — Factories in a New England village, which have 
been built because of the water power there. 


The mouths of the rivers, being good 
shipping points, are natural sites for man¬ 
ufacturing towns and cities. 

Many such towns in Maine are turesfronfthe 
engaged in lumber manufac- forest 
turing. The logs from the (1) Lumber , 

forest are floated to them, and ZadT/rom it 
there much work, requiring 
many men, is necessary to change these to 
lumber, and then to various useful articles. 

For example, the city of Bangor has 
grown up where the ocean tide checks the 
river current, so that the logs can be floated 
no farther; and vessels from the ocean can 
reach this point in order to carry off the 
lumber. The log drives of the Kennebec and 
Androscoggin rivers are stopped at the 
sawmills in several cities along their banks, 
such as Waterville, and Augusta, the 








50 


NORTH AMERICA 



capital of Maine ; but some are carried 
down as far as Bath, which is noted for its 
ship building. On the wharves of Port¬ 
land are quantities of boards ready to be 
shipped away to be made into boxes, barrels, 
doors, and hundreds of other articles. 

Another important use of the forests is 
in making paper, for much of the paper 
commonly seen, such as news- 
(2) Paper p ape r and wrapping paper, 

is now made of wood. Short logs (two-foot 
lengths), after having the bark removed, 


Fig. 58. — Men and women leaving the factory at the close of the day. 

Notice how many people there are employed in this one factory. 

are placed in a steel frame and forced 
against an enormous grindstone. The 
wood pulp thus ground off is carried away 
by water, run through a sieve, deposited on 
a wide belt, and pressed into thin sheets be¬ 
tween rollers. When dry, it is paper. Wood 
pulp is also made by help of chemicals. We 
do not often think, when reading the news 
or wrapping a package, that the paper in 
our hands may once have been part of a live 
tree, perhaps in the woods of Maine. 

Paper mills are found at Rumford Falls, 

East Livermore, East Millinocket, and 
Bangor in Maine. However, Holyoke, the 
greatest paper-making city in New England, 
is situated not in the forest region, but in the 
midst of busy cities in Massachusetts. There 


the pulp is generally made of rags, which 
produce a finer grade of paper. The neigh¬ 
boring cities furnish a large supply of the 
necessary rags. 


The forest trees supply other valuable products 
besides lumber aud wood pulp. One of these is 
tannic acid, used in tanning leather; 
it is made from the bark of the Tannic 

hemlock and other trees. Another ^jarZZ sirup 
product is maple sirup and sugar. 

Among the trees in the forests of New England is 
the sugar maple, which is very common in Vermont, 
as well as in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
other states. Its sap, unlike that 
of most trees, is sweet; and if a 
hole is bored through the bark in 
early spring, when the sap is mov¬ 
ing through the tree most rapidly, 
it will ooze forth as a watery liquid. 
This is then boiled to drive off 
some of the water, thus making 
maple sirup and maple sugar. 


3. Textile 
manufacturing 

(1) Extent and 
Ull- variety of cotton 
manufacturing 


There are hundreds of cot¬ 
ton mills in New England, 
ma kin g sue h 
articles as 
sheets, towels, 
stockings, 
derwear, thread, 
string, handkerchiefs, and 
gingham and calico dress 
goods. As many as 1200 
persons may be employed in 
a single mill, perhaps three quarters of the 
number being women. One of these mills 
may consume from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds 
of cotton per day. 


The cotton arrives in bales, each weighing about 
500 pounds, and is made into cloth in the following 
manner: First, the dirt, small sticks, 
etc., are removed. Then the cotton $) Method of 
fibers, of various lengths, are combed c0tt0l/ m anu- 
out straight and well mixed with one 
another. After that they are pressed into thin, 
gauzelike sheets. These are gradually drawn out 
and twisted into threads, and then w r ound upon 
spindles and taken to the looms for weaving. All 
this work is done by machinery. 

Cotton cloths are nothing more than such threads 
woven together, those that extend lengthwise of the 
piece being called the icarp, and those across it, the 
woof. An ordinary piece of calico has a warp of 














THE UNITED STATES 


51 



perhaps 1200 threads, while a wide piece of cloth, such 
as a sheet for a bed, may contain as many as 2500. 
Stripes and other patterns are made by coloring the 
threads differently, and then, before the weaving 
begins, carefully arranging them according to some 
design. 


After being sheared from the sheep, the 
wool is washed and freed from burs, sticks, 

, , etc. It is then untangled and 

(3) Method of ° 

wool manu- combed out straight, after 

facture which it is twisted into yarn, 

much as cotton is twisted into thread. 
The yarn is woven into cloth for men’s 
suits and overcoats, and also for coats, 
skirts, underwear, blankets, stockings, car¬ 
pets, and dozens of other articles. Most, 
if not all, of the garments that you are 
wearing are made either of wool or cotton, 
or of the two mixed together. 

Most of the cotton is brought from Texas 
and other Southern States, but some of it 

(4) Where the comes from Egypt and other 

cotton and icooi foreign countries. None is 

are obtained • i • vr„ t? a 

raised m New England. 

The wool is cut, or sheared , from sheep, 
and much of that which is manufactured 
into cloth in New England is 
obtained from Ohio and other 
states farther west. Large 
quantities are also imported 
from Australia, and a small 
amount comes from the New 
England pastures. 

The following cities are en¬ 
gaged extensively in the manu- 

facture of either 

(5) Chief cities . 

engaged in tex- Cotton 01‘ WOOlen 

tile manufac- cloth, Ol’ both : 

in Maine, Bidde- 
ford, Lewiston, Auburn, 
and Augusta ; in New Hamp¬ 
shire, Manchester, Nashua, 
and Dover ; in Massachusetts, 

Lowell and Lawrence on 
the Merrimac River; Pitts¬ 
field in western Massachusetts, and Fall 
River, New Bedford, and Taunton in 
the southern part; in Rhode Island, Paw¬ 


tucket, Woonsocket, and Providence 
(Fig. 61), which is the second city in size 
in New England. One of the largest 
cotton factories in the world is at Man¬ 
chester, N.H. Locate each of these cities 
on the map. 

Boot and shoe making is carried on in a 
number of cities, though the most important 
are Lynn, Haverhill, and 

4 Lcdthcr 

Brockton in Massachusetts, manufacturing 
Locate them. Besides boots cities en- 

and shoes, leather is made into gaged in it, and 

,i . • i i articles made 

many other articles, such as 

bookbindings, harnesses, pocketbooks, and 

bicycle saddles. Can you name others ? 

Leather is made from the hides of ani¬ 
mals, such as cattle, sheep, goats, horses, 
and hogs. After the hair is (2) How leather 
removed, the hides are taken is prepared 
to tanneries , where they are soaked in tan¬ 
nic acid to make them durable. 

Some of the tanneries are situated near forests, 
as in Michigan, where there are many hemlock 
trees whose bark produces the tannic acid. Others 
are in the mountains of North Carolina, where a 
kind of oak grows from which tannic acid is made. 


Fig. 59. — Workmen in a shoe factory in Lynn. 

Some of the tanneries of New England also are near 
the forest, but many, like those in and about Sai.em, 
are far away from the forests. To these, both the 


















52 


NORTH AMERICA 


hides and the bark must be brought a long distance. 
In some tanneries chemicals are used in place of the 
tannic acid from hemlock or oak bark. In a single 
tannery near Boston, where sheepskins are tanned, 
from 30,000 to 40,000 skins are prepared each week. 


After being tanned, the leather is brought 
to the shoe factories and cut up, one 

(3) How boots mac hine cutting out soles of a 
and shoes are certain size, a second tops, a 
made third tongues, etc. ; these parts 

are then sewed or nailed together, and the 
shoes are soon finished. As in the case of 
cotton and woolen manufacturing, nearly all 
the work is done by machinery, eacli person 
caring for one or more machines, and per¬ 
forming the same simple task day after day. 

On account of the water power, the New 
England people early began to manufacture 
5. Metal manu- metals into various articles, 
facturing Although steam now largely 

takes the place of water power, these in¬ 
dustries are still very extensive, especially 
in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con¬ 
necticut. 

Since very little coal and iron are pro¬ 
duced in New England, these two materials 
(l) Kind of must be shipped from other 
articles made, states. Therefore large, heavy 
objects, that require much 
metal and coal, are not generally made. The 
lighter articles, like jewelry, clocks, needles, 
cutlery, tools, and firearms, that require a 


high degree of skill, are the chief articles 
manufactured from metal in New England. 

Worcester (Fig. 61), west of Boston, is 
noted for the manufacture of wire and iron 
goods, besides envelopes, boots, (2 ) Cities en- 
and shoes. Great quantities gaged in this 
of jewelry are made at Provi- Vldustr y 
dence. New Haven is noted for hardware 
and firearms. Corsets, cartridges, and sew¬ 
ing machines are manufactured at Bridge¬ 
port. Munitions, automobiles, and rubber 
goods are made at Springfield and at 
Hartford, which is situated at the head 
of steamboat navigation on the Connecticut 
River. Fitchburg is also engaged in 
metal manufacturing. 

Near Boston, at Waltham, the American 
Watch Company has an immense factory 
(Fig. 60), where several thousand watches 
are made every day. The persons em¬ 
ployed in such a mammoth factory form 
almost a little city in themselves. Great 
numbers of clocks and watches are made in 
Waterbury, and jewelry and cutlery at 
Meriden, Conn. In hundreds of smaller 
cities, towns, and villages in New England 
there are factories and mills of various 
sorts. Some of the cities where cotton and 
woolen goods are manufactured, such as 
Fall River, Lowell, and New Bedford, 
are also noted for the manufacture of metals. 

All this manufacturing calls for an im- 


lit «* • <* 


I ••• 
§ ■ • 
■ ■ • 


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iniinii'ii niiniV Tii ■ • 

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: is; s 


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Fig. 60. The Waltham Watch Factory at night. This is but one of the many large factories of New England. 













THE UNITED STATES 


53 


mense amount of lumber, 
cotton, wool, leather, 

metals, coal. 

Commerce u f i 

and food \ 

and most of these prod¬ 
ucts must be brought 
from outside of New 
England. The commerce 
of New England is, there¬ 
fore, extensive. 

The rivers are not of 
great value for shipping 
these goods, because of 
their many rapids and 
falls. Most of them are 
also too short and shal¬ 
low for boats. Thus, 
while of great service in 
manufacturing, the rivers 
have helped very little in 
transportation. 

On the other hand, 
there are many good 
harbors along the coast. 
Railroads lead from the 
seaports to all parts of 
the interior. These 
roads, together with the 
numerous steamship lines 
that ply between New 
England and other parts 
of the world (Fig. 61), 
furnish excellent means 
for transportation of 
goods. 

The most important of 
the New England cities 

Principal is BOSTON, 

cities The dis- 

l. Boston tance by 

water from Boston to 



Fig. 61. — Boston and vicinity. Also small maps of Providence, Portland, and 
Worcester. Notice the steamship and railway lines converging at Boston. Also 
the number of cities near Boston. 


New York is greatly lessened by a canal 
across the neck of Cape Cod. It is a great 
manufacturing center, being engaged in 
most of the industries already named, and 
especially in making clothing. Its great 
size is largely due to its excellent harbor 
(Fig. 61), and its central location. 


The port of Boston is third in impor¬ 
tance in the United States. Great quanti¬ 
ties of raw materials are received here, to 
be sent to the factories of New England; 
and the finished goods are shipped all over 
the world. Much grain and meat reach 
Boston from the West to be distributed 






























































54 


NORTH AMERICA 


among the smaller cities, or shipped abroad. 
In return, ships from foreign countries 
bring such articles as coffee, tea, chocolate, 
rubber, wool, hides, and bananas, which 
are needed in New England. 

Boston and its vicinity have been important from 
the earliest days of our history. There, at the be¬ 
ginning of the Revolutionary War, occurred the 
Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere’s Ride, and the 
Battle of Bunker Hill. The vicinity of Boston 


is also noted for its eminent men. Harvard College, 
the oldest in the United States, was founded in 1636 
at Cambridge, three miles from Boston. Yale 
College, at New Haven, was started sixty-five 
years later, in 1701. Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, 
and Agassiz were professors at Harvard; and Haw¬ 
thorne, Emerson, Thoreau, and Whittier lived not 
far from Boston. 

In the vicinity of Boston are many 
manufacturing cities and towns which also 
2. Cities near serve as places of residence for 
Boston the business men of Boston. 

Among these the largest are Cambridge 
and Somerville (Fig. 61), which have im¬ 


portant industries of meat packing, machine 
manufacturing, and printing. Others are 
Chelsea and Malden, each engaged in 
manufacturing rubber goods and other 
articles. 

Not far distant is Salem, which in 
colonial days was even more important than 
Boston. Since its harbor is too shallow for 
the deep ships of the present time, this city 
has lost much of its commerce, which is 
now carried on in Boston. 
Notice, in Figure 43, that 
Salem was one of our large 
cities in the year 1790. 

Portland (Fig. 61), the 
largest city in Maine, has an 
excellent harbor, 3 . other large 
and is the eastern cities 
terminus of the Grand Trunk 
Railway, which runs through 
Canada. In winter, when the 
St. Lawrence River is frozen 
over, it is a shipping point 
for Canadian goods. New 
Haven, the largest city in 
Connecticut, and Providence 
(Fig. 61), the largest in 
Rhode Island, are both on 
the seacoast. 

The seacoast of New Hamp¬ 
shire is very small, and the 
largest city, Manchester, 
lies inland near some falls in 
the Merrimac River ; but on 
the coast is the important city 
of Portsmouth. Vermont has wo seacoast. 
Its largest city, Burlington, is a lake port 
on Lake Champlain. 

There is so much manufacturing and 
commerce in New England, that great num¬ 
bers of people dwell in the summer 
cities ; and during most of the resorts 
year, they are closely confined 1 . Why a need 
in noisy factories, or in offices of vacatl0ns 
and stores. To these, the wooded mountains, 
the silvery lakes (Fig. 48), the winding 
rivers, with their falls and rapids, the green 
valleys, and the rocky seacoast, offer great 





Fig. 62. — The Washington elm at Cambridge. It was under this tree that 
Washington first took command of the American army in July, 1775. 






THE UNITED STATES 


55 



attractions; and every summer tens of thou¬ 
sands leave town for a week or more, to 
enjoy their vacations at these places. 

Many go to the green slopes of the Berk¬ 
shire Hills and Green Mountains, or climb 

2. Where the about among the rugged peaks 
people spend of the White Mountains (Fig. 
their vacations 03 ^ to en j 0 y the wonderful 

scenery. Others plunge into the woods 
of Maine or northern New Hampshire, to 
hunt and fish, or to canoe upon the streams 
and lakes; and still others 
settle down at farmhouses, to 
enjoy the quiet of the country 
(Fig. 56). 

Many others go to the sea¬ 
shore, to escape the heat and 
to bathe in the salt water, or 
to sail and row. So many go 
there that a large part of the 
New England coast is dotted 
with summer cottages and 
hotels. Indeed, people come 
here from all parts of the 
United States. Thousands 
visit Bar Harbor, on Mount 
Desert Island in Maine, which 
is therefore a very busy place 
in summer. Along the coast, 
for many miles north and south 
of Boston, there are other noted 
summer resorts. Nantucket 
Island and Martha’s Vineyard 
are similar resorts farther south 
west of them, on Narragansett Bay, is 
Newport, noted for its many magnificent 
summer homes. 

1. State to what extent the mountains make the 
surface of New England irregular. Name and lo- 
. cate the principal mountains. 2. Ex- 

eview plain how the Great Glacier made 

Ques ions important changes in New England. 

3. How has the sinking of the coast made the coast 
line very irregular? 4. Describe the climate. 
5. What about the extent of the forests in New 
England? 6. Tell about the cutting of timber. 

7. Describe the floating of the logs to the mills. 

8. What hardships are there in the lumberman’s 
life? 9. What can you tell about the granite? 


10. The marble? 11. The slate? 12. What about 
the former abundance of fish? Name and locate 
the centers for the present fishing industry. 
13. What kinds of fish are now caught? 14. De¬ 
scribe the method of catching and marketing mack¬ 
erel. 15. Where are halibut and codfish caught? 

16. Describe the method of catching them. 

17. What are the dangers connected with such fish¬ 
ing ? 18. What is the method of marketing these 
fish ? 19. What other ocean foods are found in this 
region? 20. To what extent is agriculture impor¬ 
tant here ? 21. What are the principal farm prod¬ 
ucts? 22. Why is there a good market for such 


Fig. 63. — The railway up the slopes of Mount Washington, on which 
thousands of summer visitors are taken to the top of the mountain 
every summer. 


while just 


products? 23. Why is manufacturing very exten¬ 
sive in New England? 24. Where is the manufac¬ 
ture of lumber carried on? 25. Tell how paper is 
made. 26. What other forest products are obtained? 
27. What kinds of textile manufacturing are there 
in New England? 28. What is the extent of the 
cotton manufacturing? 29. Describe the method 
of manufacturing cotton and woolen goods. 

30. Where are the cotton and wool obtained? 

31. Name and locate the principal cities engaged 
in textile manufacturing. 32. What can you tell 
about leather manufacturing ? 33. What are the 
principal kinds of metal manufacturing? Why? 
34. What cities are extensively engaged in this in¬ 
dustry? 35. What advantages has New England 
for commerce? 36. For what is Boston important? 
37. Name other cities near Boston and tell about 
each. 38. Locate the other large cities. For what 







56 


NORTH AMERICA 


is each important? 39. Why is there a special need 
of vacations in New England ? 40. Where and how 
do the people spend them ? 

Maine (Me.). 1. Draw the coast line of Maine. 

2. Why is it so irregular? 3. Find the principal 
rivers. 4. What cities are situated 
Review Ques- on each ? 5. Should you expect 

tions by States much fishing along the coast? Why? 

6. What reasons can you give why so 
many people resort to the Maine coast and woods in 
summer? 7. Describe lumbering in Maine. 8. What 
cities are engaged in producing lumber ? Why those ? 
9. What stones are quarried in the state? 10. Which 
is the largest city? IIovv does it compare in size with 
Boston and Providence ? (See Appendix, pp. 453 and 
454.) 11. What other cities in Maine are mentioned 

in the text? Find them on the map. 12. Draw an out¬ 
line map of Maine, locating the principal rivers and 
lakes, the capital, and other leading cities. Do the 
same for each of the other states as you study about it. 

New Hampshire (N.H.). 13. What large lakes 

are found in this state? What river? 14. Name 
the cities on it. 15. For what are they important? 
16. Why are there not more cities in northern New 
Hampshire? 17. What industry should you expect 
there? 18. Find Mount Washington ; it is the high¬ 
est peak in New England. 19. Where should you ex¬ 
pect to find most farming? 20. How does the largest 
city in the state compare in size with Portland? 

Vermont (Vt.). 21. What large lake forms a 

part of the western boundary? Into what waters 
does it empty? 22. What river flows along the east¬ 
ern boundary? Through what states does it flow? 
23. What is the name of the mountains? 24. Lum¬ 
bering is carried on, as in Maine; into what waters 
must the lumber be floated? 25. What other Ver¬ 
mont industries are mentioned in the text? 26. There 
is also farming in the fertile valleys, and manu¬ 
facturing, as at Brattleboro. Find Brattleboro. 
27. Compare the size of the largest city with that 
of Manchester, N.H. 

Massachusetts (Mass.). 28. Compare Massachu¬ 
setts with Vermont and Maine in area; in popula¬ 
tion. (See Appendix, p. 452.) 29. Name the large 
cities near Boston (Fig. 61). 30. Find the principal 
cities mentioned in the text, and tell where each is 
located. 31. For what is each important? 32. What 
advantages do you see in the location of each? 

33. Find Plymouth, where the Pilgrims landed. 

34. Where is the mountainous portion of the state? 
Name the mountains. 35. What effect should you 
expect the mountains to have upon agriculture? 
36. State as cleai’ly as you can the reasons why 
Boston has grown to be a large city. 37. Of what 
importance is Boston to the cities near by? 38. Of 
what importance are they to Boston ? 

Rhode Island (R.I.). 39. Compare this state 

with Massachusetts and Maine in area. It is the 


smallest state in the Union. 40. What is the name 
of the bay in this state? What cities are located on 
it? 41. What large city is in Rhode Island? How 
is it important? 42. Compare its size with that of 
Boston and Portland. 43. Should you expect much 
lumbering in Rhode Island? Why? 44. What kind 
of farming? Why? 

Connecticut (Conn, or Ct.). 45. Where are the 

mountains in this state? 46. Locate each of the 
cities mentioned in the text. 47. Tell how each is 
important. 48. The farms of Connecticut are better 
than those of Maine. Why? 49. There is little lum¬ 
bering in the state. Why? 50. Compare the size of 
New Haven with that of Boston and Portland. 

51. Name the principal industries of New 
England. In which states are they carried on ? 

52. Which industry do you consider , _ 

, . o nyf i v 4 . ( General Review 

most important r Make a list ot » ,. 

the ten largest cities (see Appendix) ” 

in New England, the states they are in, and the 

chief kinds of manufacturing they are engaged in. 

53. Make a drawing of the New England States, 
including the chief rivers, cities, mountains, and the 
state boundaries. 

1. Read Whittier’s “ Snow-Bound.” 2. Read about 
lumbering in Chase and Clow’s “ Stories of Industry,” 
Vol. I. 3. Visit a stone-yard, or a „ 
place where monuments are made, u 2£ es 1003 
and collect some specimens from the chips in the 
yard. Put these in the school collection. 4. Find 
blocks of granite and of marble in buildings. 

5. Make drawings of mackerel, cod, and halibut. 
You will find pictures of them in the dictionary. 

6. Make a collection of cotton, wool, leather, and 
metals for the school; also make a collection of 
articles manufactured from each. 7. Find the pres¬ 
ent price of cotton per pound. At that price how 
much would the seventy thousand pounds, that 
one mill uses in a day, be worth? 8. If you live 
in a city where there are large manufacturing 
plants, perhaps your teacher can arrange a visit 
to one of them in order to see how the work is 
carried on. 


3 . Middle Atlantic States 

1. Which states have mountains? 2. Which 
has none ? 3. What influence do you think the 
mountains have upon the industries? _ 

4. What waters help to form the U ^ 

boundary of this group of states? 5. Where do 
natural boundaries separate the states? 6. Compare 
this group of states with New England in length and 
width (Fig. 46). Notice the scales of the two 
maps. 7. Which is the largest state? Is it larger 
or smaller than Maine? (See Appendix, p. 452.) 
8. Name the three bays. Why has a city a better 
location at the head of one of these bays than at 



80° 


78° 


■16 


MIDDLE ATLANTIC 
STATES 

Scale of Miles 


Q 


u 


c 


0 60 100 160 200 ^ 

Cities with over 1,000,000_ -. NEW YORK J 

atie» with 6oo ( ooo to i,ooo ( ooo_ Baltimore nr 

cs fie* with loo.ooo to 600,000 _Buffalo) J 

Citiu with 26,000 to 100,000_Norfolk LA 

Smaller placet ----Danville < 

Capitals with less than 25,000_DOVER 

^ National Capitals (^) State Capitals ® Q yt 

^ ^ Other Cities • ^ 

O N 




» 




j / Y q Kingston 


Ottawa 


""*vf LakiAA$ - 
Cha>\0ainm 

^gdehsburg ^ 

7 ADlRONbA^^ ^ ^ 




London - ; 


•*0 


Toledo . 0 jj A 


Mansfield 

o H 


Oj . St.Thomas 


^Carthage 


iurlington 
2; 

£? Y /} PELIKK® 

Mis. Ifl Z Q( I 


ui 


Toronto 




0 

NT A R \ 

Oswego^ 


''Dunkirk^ 
Chautauqua L. 

.Jamestown 


lochester 

Canandaigua __^ 

/ , G r „^>,A\b\n° i> 4cu^ e 

^fA\ • Cort,an 

V IU. Althaea 


, . Tieonderoga^, , _ 

Watertown e(f 0 Cl n j\\ -**>£ 

)=, O . L“* 4 Jjr\ Rutland 

, * V/^1a ' s %, Xvll t ) & 

1 *» / 'v/V \ V^lanl I w 


Ufornell 


A 


A-3' 


J/frojI 


) (o' 

C ATS^. W^/MASS. 


^cHen« c ^V’ 


(Cleveland j 

) k 


IkronV 


Youngstownr 
* Canton 


Oil/City 


Oleanl 
Bradford^ 

Dubois 


Corning > Elmira 0 we b'^’Biiighamtotr~ < MTS j V j 


Catskill I, Hudson 


Blossburg 


u«^ \ Williamsport 


C'v Kingston* Ig (Hartford 

™ PoughkeepsieL" j 


\ 

Scranton ’ 


Newburgh ““ ac0 CONN 
Middletown |(a I 

I) New Haven 


I 


O 

Steubenville^ 

Zanesville^ Wheeling J 


p e\ n N*y 


Bearer 

.(Falls 


Y L V, 


^Altoona 


; Columbus 


• 'r Alls 

"rttsburg 

A/i^Braddook ., 

J ”cKeesport ‘Johnstown 

Connellsvi lle ^ J 




A L.. 


• ls*" K * 

|VaBhipgtor^ 


Wilkes- BarreAt^fkakU 1. 


Hazleton 

■ 1 '• * ^ %>/- 


■Sri 






\StAND 


_ fll ! A 

.Shfena’ndoah Jt.oCb- 
•Shamokin 1 Easton^n! 

)BetWebf® ' 4 i $ 7 ) r, 

Lebanon ) Reading BmiuBwicKvQ 
»)_ • . ^-v^^PottBtown‘o\ K NEW 

^Harnsbur ?N^d 8town ^Trenton 1 / ^ ^ . 

\Lancaster^ PLFTT.ADELPHIA ,ch 


Chanibersburg 
Cumberland 


\ j) *A 

Grafton I 

Clarksburg) 

ftr kerSburg W JE S 

Pbrtsmouth 

Of\Va 


dartinaburgl 


^ Winchester 


u c k ha n non 

<y 

y r g 1 n 1 


-f Charleston 


I'J // 


w ^ i” 
^ w 


/ 


o 


rg • 'v York' >V Chester J? Camden 
-A ,-^JERSEY 

• ifagerstown 1 


odvEiA/W- ? 

vjjt, 7. $lD6laivu>etf 

) ^ Wstrict " l \ Bay / ffl 

\ rashington^^^^fe^ qeOv.„ CuP ! 


) Bridgeton 


Millville- 


- ^ 
/Atlantic City 


j Cave 


May 
Cape Hen!open 


Fredericksburg^ 


White Suljihur Springs y j \y 


^ Charlottesville 


sir. 

)Hinton j 


Natural 


I R G. 

bridge 




^•^.^Pocahon^s^C-, 

^ v Roanoke '-\Qunto> t 




ichmon^ 

Marichestere 

Lynchburg Petersburg' 


36 


T E N N. 


N 




Greensboro 


Salisbury*^ 

O R \t 


SOUTH CAROLINA 


Charlotte / 


Durham 
Raleigh ® 

C A R \0 

Fayetteville 


^Newport Ne 

Portsmou€! 

\Suflblk* 

'j Dis»i<&Ls~± 
’ Swamp 


Old 


I 5 Nor: 


'tape Charlea 
Pt. Comfort 
Cape Henry 
'oik 


Sv 


Plymouth] 

LINA 


1 Goldsboro 

NewbernX 


po pai* x 




i J 

//■ * 

c ° Cape 

Hatteras V 


V 


WILLIAMS EN 6 RAVIN 8 CO., N.V. 


80° Longitude 


West 78° from 


Greenwich 76* 


FIG. (54. 
















































































































58 


NORTH AMERICA 


the entrance? 9. Name and locate the capital of 
each state. 10. Find the capital of the United States. 
Would a location nearer the center of the country 
be better? 11. Name the five largest rivers. Into 
what waters do they How? Through what states? 


New England, the map shows clearly that 
much of the region is mountainous. 

J ust east of the mountains is a low, hilly 
plateau of hard rock, called the Piedmont 



ATLANTIC STAT 

Modeled by 


Fig. 65. — Relief map of Middle Atlantic States. 


The Appalachian Mountains extend from 
northeast to southwest across these states. 
Surface Note , the number of parallel 

features ranges. How great is the 

l. Extent of distance across this mountain 
the mountains system? What two mountain¬ 
ous sections do you find in eastern New 
York ? While the surface of a large portion 
of these states is more regular than that of 


Plateau (Fig. 41). This is really a worn- 
down mountain region like New England; 
in fact, it represents the very 2 . The Pied- 
roots of those mountains which mont Plateau 
rose above the sea long before the Coal 
Period (p. 4). The plateau slopes sea¬ 
ward, causing the streams to flow in short 
courses in the same direction. 

Nearer the seacoast the country is a low 













THE UNITED STATES 


59 




MICHIGAN 

DetroW 


jMDVANA \ C °o 


oV o F '* n ' 

r\T^\, oul»'' U » 
K ?,!„!!* 
A<mberiH0AZ- 


HiiUVgb 




Chattanooga/^. 


J ( .soy 

yLoluw'i'Vf 
^2ipCA' 
Sogy c *y, 


alabava 


,ontgo“J 


SCALE OF MILES 


plain of softer rocks, chiefly sands and clays. 
They were deposited on the sea bottom 
3. The Coastal and then raised 
Plains to form dry 

land. These plains, added 
to the country more re¬ 
cently, are known as the 
Coastal Plains (Fig. 41). 

From New York to Ala¬ 
bama the streams that flow 

4 The Fail from the Pied- 
Line and its mont Plateau 
importance to the Coastal 

Plains have rapids and falls 
where they cross the divid¬ 
ing line between these two. 

This boundary is, therefore, 
called the Fall Line (Fig. 

66 ). There are rapids and 
falls along this line, because 
the streams have been able 
to dig more rapidly into the 
soft layers of the Coastal Plains than into 
the harder rocks of the Piedmont Plateau. 

Before white men came, the Indians 


Fig. 67. — Delaware Water Gap. 

placed their villages on the streams along 
this line. The early settlers also located 


their villages here, partly because of the 
water power, and partly because boats go¬ 
ing upstream were stopped 
by the rapids and falls. 
Now many of these villages 
have become large cities. 
Note (Fig. 66) how many 
cities are on the Fall Line. 
Name them. 

On the western side of the 
mountains is the Allegheny 
Plateau, which 5 The slope 
slopes gently west of the 
toward the mountain8 
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 
Near the mountains, in 
West Virginia and Penn¬ 
sylvania, the rivers have 
cut deep valleys in this 
plateau; and it is there¬ 
fore so rugged and rocky 
that it has attracted few 
settlers, except near the rich coal beds that 
lie buried in the rocks. 

You have already learned (p. 31) that 

the Appalachian 

Moun - 6. Passage- 
tains ways across the 
w e r e Appalachians 

at first a serious 
barrier to westward 
migration ; but at 
the beginning of 
the last century 
many emigrants 
pushed their way 
across them. This 
migration was 
greatly aided by 
the fact that several 
rivers, such as the 
Mohawk, Delaware 
(Fig. 67), Susque¬ 
hanna, Potomac, 
and James flow 
across a part or the 
whole of the mountain system. These 
rivers formed gateways to the fertile 


Fig. 66. — The Fall Line. Coastal Plains 
dotted, Piedmont and other sections 
left white. Cities printed in heavy 
type are located along the Fall Line. 











60 


NORTH AMERICA 



western plains beyond the mountains. 
Describe the course of each of these rivers, 
telling through what states it flows. 

The map shows many lakes in New York, 
northern New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 

7 . Effects of the There are also many waterfalls 
Great Glacier and rapids. Niagara (Fig. 
68 ), on the boundary of New York, is the 
grandest waterfall in the world; 
and two of the Great Lakes, 
which are also partly in New 
York, are among the largest 
lakes in the world. There are 
several other large lakes in this 
state. Name some of them 
(Fig. 64). As in New England, 
many of these lakes and water¬ 
falls were caused by the Great 
Glacier. Trace its southern 
boundary in these states (Fig. 

18). What about lakes and 
waterfalls south of that line ? 

In the Middle Atlantic States, 
as in New England, the sinking 

8 . Effects of the 0f the land has 
sinking of the caused numerous 

coast large bays and fine 

harbors. Through these the 
tide often reaches far inland. 

In the Hudson River, for in¬ 
stance, it extends above Albany; 
and in the several branches of 
the Chesapeake Bay, it reaches 
nearly to the Fall Line. Most 
of the coast, unlike the rocky 
coast of New England, is low 
and sandy, with long, gently 
sloping beaches, where the bath¬ 
ing is excellent (Fig. 69). 

The northern part of New 
York is in 45 degrees north latitude. 

How far is that from the 
The climate equator? From the north 

pole ? How much nearer the equator is 
the southern part of Virginia? 

While the climate of the northern part 
of the Middle Atlantic States resembles 
that of New England, that of the southern 


portion is much warmer. Its greater 
warmth is due partly to the lower latitude, 
and partly to the ocean currents. The 
cold Labrador current does not extend 
south of Cape Cod, but the Gulf Stream 
passes very near the Virginia coast (Fig. 
313). 

The climate in Virginia is so mild that 


Fig. 68. — A view of Niagara Falls. 

sleighing and skating are rarely possible, 
while places near the entrance of Chesapeake 
Bay — such as Old Point Comfort and 
Newport News — are important winter 
resorts. Among the mountains, however, 
the climate is cooler ; and even as far south 
as Virginia and North Carolina there are 
cool summer resorts on the mountain slopes. 












THE UNITED STATES 


61 



Photor/raph supplied by Pennsylvania Railroad. 
Fig. 69. —Bathing on Cape May Beach, N.J. 


The winds of this section often blow from 
the ocean, so that there is abundant rainfall 
for crops and for the growth of dense 
forests. In most of these states, from forty 
to fifty inches of rain falls every year. 

Many of the prominent industries in the 
Middle Atlantic States are the same as those 
Lumbering of New England. There are 

and related in- extensive forests in both the 
dustries Adirondack and Appalachian 

mountains, as well as upon the Allegheny 
Plateau. In the southern part, in and near 
West Virginia, many hard-wood trees are 
found ; but in the northern portion, both 
the trees and the methods of lumbering 
resemble those in Maine. 

Williamsport, in Pennsylvania, is ex¬ 
tensively engaged in the lumber busi¬ 
ness. There are also many paper mills 
supplied from the forests, as at Water- 
town, near the Adirondacks. The sugar 
maple grows in New York and Pennsyl¬ 
vania ; and in most of the states tannic 
acid is obtained from the bark of the hem¬ 
lock or oak. 

Over most of this section the woods have been so 
wastefully cut down that it is now necessary for the 
government to protect those that are left. In several 
of the states there are forest reservations in which 
it is forbidden to cut down the trees, or where oidy 
a few of the largest are cut each year. Besides this, 
some large tracts of woodland, called game preserves , 
are carefully protected by certain citizens, for the 
purpose of fishing and hunting at the proper season. 
State laws also protect the game. 


Fishing for cod and halibut is a much 
less important industry than in New Eng¬ 
land. It is too far to the Fish¬ 
ing Banks (p. 46) for many Fishin S 
vessels to go there from the Middle Atlantic 
States. 

Some vessels are engaged in catching 
mackerel, bluefish, and other ocean fish ; and 
many shad are caught in the i. Kinds of 
bays and rivers. This fish fish cau g ht 
swims into fresh water each spring in order 
to lay its eggs, or spawn ; and the young 
remain there until they are large enough to 
venture to the sea. It is while they are on 
the way to or from the spawning grounds 
that most shad are caught. 

Oysters are found all the way from Cape 
Cod to the Rio Grande (Fig. 267) ; but one 
of the best places for them is 2. The oyster 
Chesapeake Bay, where the industry 
waters are warm, shallow, and quiet. From 
this broad, branching bay they are collected 
in great quantities, some being shipped away 
fresh in the shell, while many are canned, 
like fruit. Baltimore and Norfolk are 
especially noted for this industry. 

When young, the oysters swim freely about; but 
after reaching a certain age, they sink to the bottom, 
fasten themselves to some solid substance, like a 
stone or an oyster shell, and never afterwards move 
from that spot. They depend for food upon what is 
brought to their mouths by the tidal currents. 

Oysters live only in shallow water, and can some¬ 
times be picked up by hand from a boat; but usually 
they must be dragged, or dredged , up with a long- 









62 


NORTH AMERICA 


Agriculture 

1. Where the 
farms are 
located 


handled rake. Small steamers and sailing boats are 
used for gathering them. Many men are engaged 
in the oyster industry, which is so profitable that 
there are many private oyster beds, which are care¬ 
fully protected. Such beds are sometimes called 
oyster farms, or plantations. Young oysters are 
often brought here and put into the water to grow, 
as seeds are planted in a garden. 

There is more good farm land in the 
Middle Atlantic States than in New England, 
and agriculture is, therefore, 
p, more important industry. 
The low, level Coastal Plains, 
the gently rolling Piedmont 
Plateau, and nearly all of New York, except 
the Catskill and Adirondack regions, are 
dotted with farms. There is also much 
farm land in the broader val¬ 
leys of the Allegheny Pla¬ 
teau, west of the mountains, 
and in the valleys which lie 
between the Appalachian 
Mountain ridges. Among the 
latter by far the most im¬ 
portant is the Great Valley of 
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
Virginia. 

Many of the farmers turn 
their attention chiefly to 
dairying; and, 
although butter 
and cheese are made in every 
state in the Union, this work is especially 
important in New York. 

The number of cows in a dairy herd 
(Fig. 70) varies from a dozen to several 
score. In summer they are allowed to graze 
in the pastures, but during the winter they 
are kept in large barns, where hay is fed to 
them. Twice each day they are milked, 
and, as in New England (p. 48), the milk 
may be sent to a neighboring city to be 
sold by the quart, or it may be kept for 
making butter or cheese. 

Utica, on the Mohawk River, is an im¬ 
portant cheese market; and small cheese 
and butter factories, or creameries , are scat¬ 
tered over New York. They are common 
in the other states, also. These creameries 


furnish a ready market for the milk, and are 
therefore of great value to the farmers near 
by; indeed, milk is even brought by train 
to some of the creameries. 

The tobacco plant, which grows to a 
height of about three and a half feet, has 
large, thick leaves (Fig. 106), 
somewhat like those of the pie- 3 ' Tobacco 
plant, or rhubarb. These leaves, which are 
the valuable part of the plant, are plucked 
in the fall, hung in a room to dry, and then 
are ready for market. 

The climate of most parts of New Eng¬ 
land and New York is too severe for this 
plant, but large quantities are raised in 
the Connecticut Valley, and in the valleys 



> v. 


2 Dairying 


Fig. 70. — A dairy herd in New York feeding in the pasture late in the Fall, 
after the first snow has fallen. 


of southern New York, Pennsylvania, and 
states farther west (Fig. 256). Far the 
greatest amount of tobacco raised in the 
Middle Atlantic States comes from Vir¬ 
ginia, which now ranks third in the United 
States in this product. In the vicinity of 
Lynchburg and Danville, where much 
tobacco manufacturing is carried on, im¬ 
mense quantities are grown; and Rich¬ 
mond and Petersburg are among the lead¬ 
ing tobacco markets of the world. 

Both the soil and the climate of these 

states are well suited to the . „ . . , 

raising of fruits and vegeta- fruits and vege- 

bles. Nearly every farmer tables 

raises some of each. The (L Sections 
.. , it r important for 

sections near large bodies of these products 






THE UNITED STATES 


water, however, have the best climate for 
fruit. This is because the presence of water 
tends to equalize the climate, thus checking 
the danger from frosts. 

One of the most noted sections for fruit 
is along the southern shores of Lake Erie 
in western New York. Here grapes in 
particular are cultivated (Fig. 71). Apples 
form another important fruit crop in New 
York, being grown in many parts of the 
state, but especially along the southern 
shores of Lake Ontario. There is so much 
fruit raising in New York that the nursery 
business , or that of raising young fruit trees, 



Fig. 71. —Grapes on a vine in a vineyard in western 
New York. 


vines, and bushes to sell, is a flourishing in¬ 
dustry. One of the principal centers for 
this business is Rochester. 

On the Coastal Plains and Piedmont 
Plateau of eastern New Jersey, Delaware, 
Maryland, and Virginia, grapes, peaches, 
strawberries, apples, and other fruits flour¬ 
ish. Besides fruit, such common vegetables 
as potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, beans, 
and sweet corn are grown in the Middle 
Atlantic States. 

There are so many large cities in these 
states that there is great demand for fruits 
(2) The market and vegetables. In the early 
for them spring they are sent from the 

soutli in large quantities to the northern 
markets, being carried on fast trains, and 


03 

often in special cars. Many kinds are eaten 
fresh during the proper season. 

The canning of fruits and vegetables for 
winter use has become an important in¬ 
dustry in several cities, as in Baltimore 
and Wilmington. Many farmers are en¬ 
gaged almost entirely in raising crops for 
this purpose. Probably as many peaches, 
berries, tomatoes, etc., are put up in cans, 
as are eaten fresh. These canned goods 
may be seen in every grocery store. The 
fruits are prepared for use in other ways 
also ; for instance, the juice of grapes is 
made into wine, and that of apples into 
cider and vinegar. 

Besides the cattle necessary for dairying, 
many horses are raised in these 5 other farm 
states. I 11 some of the more products 
hilly sections, like western New York and 
Pennsylvania, there are many sheep. Hogs 
are raised on most of the farms ; and also 
hens, ducks, and turkeys. 

Among the most important crops of the 
Middle Atlantic States are hay and the 
grains, such as wheat, oats, corn, barley, 
rye, and buckwheat. Far more land is 
used for these crops than for those already 
mentioned. However, since the states 
farther west are even more noted for hay 
and grain, a description of this kind of 
farming will be given later, in connection 
with those states (pp. 106-110). 

There are many more kinds of mineral 
products in the Middle Atlan¬ 
tic States than in New Eng- Minin S 
land ; and they are far more valuable. 

One of these is salt, a mineral which is 
necessary to every one. In the early days 
salt springs were discovered 
at the point where Syracuse 1 ’ Salt 
now stands, and that city owed its early 
growth to those springs. Little salt is now 
produced there; but large quantities of 
soda are made of brine obtained from the 
salt beds near by. 

These beds of salt were deposited in the 
sea which covered this region before the 
Coal Period. They were later buried 







64 


NORTH AMERICA 


beneath layers of rock, much 
as the coal beds were buried. 

In the region 

(1) WKerefound sou(;h of Syra . 

cuse and Rochester, the salt 
beds lie deep in the earth, and 
from them salt is obtained at 
a number of places. In fact, 
New York produces more salt 
than any other state, with the 
exception of Michigan, which 
ranks first. Ohio and Kansas 
also produce large quantities. 




When in the earth, salt is hard, 
somewhat like coal, and may be 
obtained in either 
(2) How one 0 £ t wo wa y S . By the one 

method a small hole is bored to 
the salt, and water allowed to run down and dissolve 
it; then the brine is pumped up and the water is 
evaporated by heat until only the salt is left (Fig. 
72). By the other method a deep hole, or shaft, 
large enough for men to pass up and down, is dug 
down to the salt; then lumps of salt are broken 
off and hoisted to the surface. A salt mine is a 
beautiful sight with its clear, crystal white walls 
and clean floor. 


Fig. 72.— The salt in these great piles was brought to the surface in brine 
that rose through wells bored down to the salt beds of central New York. 
The brine was then evaporated, leaving the salt. 


Fig. 73. — A miner digging out bituminous coal in a tunnel, far underground, 
near Pittsburg. The entire wall of this tunnel is solid coal. 


Although there is little water power south 
of the region that the glacier covered, there 
is much coal — an excellent sub- 2. Coal 
stitute. The coal swamps, that (l) Where 
existed millions of years ago (p. found 
5), stretched from the ancient Appalachian 
Mountains westward beyond the Mississippi 
River. Most of the coal now found in this 
region is soft, or bituminous , coal, and enor¬ 
mous quantities of it 
are mined (Fig. 73). 
I 11 two or three places, 
however, as near 
Wilkes-Barre and 
Scranton, there are 
beds of hard coal, or 
anthracite. It is to 
this coal that these 
cities owe their impor¬ 
tance. 

Although much coal 
is mined in other parts of 
the country, the Middle 
Atlantic States are most 
noted for this mineral. 
About half the coal of 
the United States comes 
from Pennsylvania ; 
West Virginia is second, 
and Illinois third, while 
Ohio produces a large 
quantity. 


















THE UNITED STATES 


65 


(2) How anthra¬ 
cite coal was 
formed, and its 
special value 


Anthracite coal was once soft. Had it not been 
for the folding of the mountains, it would doubtless 
now be bituminous coal, like that 
farther west, near Pittsburgh. But 
the pressure caused by the folding of 
the mountain rocks has changed it 
to hard coal. All woody matter, 
and even soft coal, contains gases; but in the 
anthracite these gases have been mostly driven 
off. 

This has made anthracite coal harder and more 
difficult to burn; but since it gives forth a more 
intense heat than bituminous coal, and burns with 
less smoke, anthracite is preferred for some purposes, 
such as heating and cooking. Throughout New 



(4) How an¬ 
thracite coal is 
prepared for 
market 


Fig. 74. — A drawing to illustrate how coal is mined. There is a shaft going 
straight down, then tunnels extend off from it into the different coal beds. 


England and many parts of the Middle Atlantic 
States, it is almost the only coal used for these 
purposes. 

In some places the coal is found close to 
the surface, though in many others it is 
(3) Method several hundred feet beneath 
of mining the surface. Where the coal 
lies far down in the earth, deep shafts must 
be sunk to reach it. From the sides of such 
a shaft, tunnels (Fig. 74) are dug into the 
coal beds, and from these the coal is re¬ 
moved. 

Usually there are several beds of coal, with thick 
layers of rock between, and the shaft extends down¬ 
ward through them all, with tunnels reaching out 


into each of the coal beds (Fig. 74). In a large 
mine one may travel through miles and miles of 
tunnels. Since it is very dark so far underground, 
the tunnels are sometimes lighted by electricity ; but 
the workmen often furnish their own light by means 
of lamps fastened to their caps. 

The miners drill holes in the coal beds with drills 
run by steam or compressed air, and break the coal 
out by blasting; the larger lumps are then broken 
up with picks. After this is done, the coal is placed 
in cars, drawn to the shaft by mules, or by electricity, 
and then hoisted to the surface. The mules are 
kept underground for months, being fed and allowed 
to sleep in stables cut out of solid coal. 

Soft coal is sold in the form that it reaches the 
surface; but anthracite must first 
be sorted so that the 
lumps of one size are 
together. This work 
is done in great 
buildings, called coal 
breakers , which stand close by the 
mouth of the shafts. The coal is 
hoisted to the top of the breaker, 
where the larger lumps are broken 
up. It then passes down through 
the building and is separated into 
different sizes by means of sieves 
and various kinds of machinery. 

There is much rock mixed with 
the coal, and this must be picked 
out. Some of this work is done by 
machinery; but much of it is done 
by boys, called breaker boys, who sit 
on low wooden benches, as the coal 
passes by, watching carefully for 
pieces of rock. These they pick out 
and throw away. You can imagine 
how black they become before their 
day’s work is done. 

Both the hard and the soft coal are used 

not only for heating houses and for cook- 

in g, but also in making’ steam 

£ • i , • (5) Uses of coat 

tor use in running locomotives, 

steamboats, and the machinery of factories. 
Much coal is used also in smelting iron and 
other metals, and in the manufacture of 
illuminating gas for use in lighting houses. 
Coal is, indeed, the most useful of all min¬ 
erals. Without it, our country could not 
have prospered as it has. It is fortunate, 
therefore, that there is so much coal in the 
United States, and that it is found over so 
large an area. 

In the rocks of the plateau along the 















66 


NORTH AMERICA 


western border of the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains, two other fuels, oil and natural gas, 
3 petroleum are often found. Petroleum , 
and natural gas as the oil is generally called, 

(1) where found, means “rock oil,” — a name 
which suggests its origin. 

Formerly no region in the world pro¬ 
duced so much oil as western Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, and eastern Ohio ; but now 
this region is rivaled by California and 
a part of the Gulf region in Oklahoma and 
Texas. Outside of the United States the 
only region in the world that approaches 
either of these in the amount of oil pro¬ 
duced is in Russia, near the Caspian Sea. 

Ages ago, when the layers of rock were being 
deposited on the ocean floor (p. 10), countless num¬ 
bers of animals and plants, dying and 

(2) Howfoinud dropping t G the bottom, were impris¬ 
oned in the sediment and deeply buried. These 
then slowly decayed, forming oil and natural gas 
which entered the crevices between the grains of 
the sandstones and other rocks. Thus these sub¬ 
stances have become stored deep down in the earth. 
Oil of much the same kind is now manufactured 
from fish; and nearly the same kind of gas may 
often be seen rising from swampy places, where 
plants are decaying. 

When a hole is bored down to a rock 
layer where gas is thus stored, the gas 

(3) How ob- rushes to the surface. It is 
tained from then led away in pipes, often 
underground to distant places. Thousands 
of homes in Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and 
other cities are heated with natural gas; 
and in many factories, too, the gas is used 
for fuel. 

Borings in which petroleum rises are 
called oil wells. From these the oil some¬ 
times spurts, or gushes out; but frequently 
it must be pumped out. Near the oil wells 
cities have grown up, such as Bradford 
and Oil City in Pennsylvania, and Olean 
in New York. 

After being taken from the earth, the 
petroleum is stored in large tanks and then 

(4) Products refined. In its natural state it 
from the oil is a thick, dark yellow or red¬ 
dish yellow fluid; but in the refinery it is 


changed so that a large part of it becomes 
clear, colorless gasoline. 

Kerosene oil, benzine, naphtha, and ether are also 
made from petroleum. The thick substances that 
are left, after the refining, are used in making dyes 
of various kinds, machine oil, vaseline, and paraffin. 
The latter is used in many ways; for example, in 
making chewing gum, and candles. 

The oil business is mainly in the hands of the 

Standard Oil Company. From the wells the oil is 

led to the refineries in pipes (Fig. 

75) sometimes hundreds of miles ^ Principal 
, ' , ,, company han- 

long, and the company owns many ( m nff 0 n 

special tank cars for hauling oil 

products, as well as steamers for shipping them to 

foreign lands. Watch for one of the tank cars, and 

describe it. 



Fig. 75. — A large pipe through which petroleum is 
flowing from the oil wells to the refinery. 


Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and the 
other states mentioned enjoy a great advan¬ 
tage in having such an abun- . T 

° , 4. Iron ore 

dance of coal, oil, and gas for ^ Where 
fuel. Iron ore is also found found, and why 
in New York, Pennsylvania, important 
Virginia, West Virginia, New Jersey, and 
some other states. Thus both the raw mate¬ 
rial and the fuel for manufacturing it into 
useful articles, are found almost side by side. 
Both coal and iron are easily sent to all 
the cities of the Middle Atlantic States 
for use in the factories. This is very im¬ 
portant, since iron is the most useful of all 


metals for manufacturing. 

In appearance, iron ore is sometimes a 
hard, black mineral; sometimes a soft, loose, 








THE UNITED STATES 


67 


yellowish or reddish brown earth. It is 

not iron at all, any more than 

(2) Its appear- . . 

ance; also how wheat is Hour ; it is only iron 

formed and ore , a mineral out of which 

iron may be made by a great 

deal of work. 

Like coal, the iron ore in the earth was prepared 
long ago, though in a very different manner, as fol¬ 
lows: Small quantities of iron exist in many min¬ 
erals and rocks ; indeed, the red and yellow colors of 
many soils, and of some rocks, are due to it. As 
water slowly works its way through the rocks, it 
dissolves the iron, much as it would dissolve salt or 


vania produces more slate, sandstone, and limestone 
than any other state in the Union. Pennsylvania 
leads all other states in the value of its building 
stone, and New York ranks third. 

To obtain iron from iron ore, two mate¬ 
rials, coke and limestone, are Manufacturing 
used. They are mixed with L Manufacture 
the ore and heated, and the 0 f iron goods 
process of getting out the iron (1) How iron is 
is called smelting. made 

Coke is obtained from soft coal by burning it in 
stone or brick furnaces, called coke ovens (Fig. 76). 
There the coal is set on fire, and the ovens are closed, 



Fig. 76. — Coke ovens near Pittsburgh. Each of the small doors leads to an oven where the coal is burned and 

changed to coke. 


sugar if those substances were there. Where the 
conditions have been favorable, the water has brought 
quantities of the iron to one point, and there depos¬ 
ited it. This has formed beds, or veins , of iron ore, 
and it is these that are now being mined. 

Sometimes the veins lie very deep, and the ore 
must be mined in much the same way as coal is 
mined (p. 65). Again the veins are so near the 
surface that the ore is taken out of great open pits, 
somewhat as stone is removed from a quarry. 

Besides these valuable substances, there are many 
other minerals found in these states. Among them 
are zinc, found in New Jersey; 
5. Other min- gypsum and graphite, or black lead, 
era pro uc s yj ew York; and a great variety of 

clays and building stones in all the states. Alabama 
leads all the states in graphite deposits. Pennsyl- 


so that little air can enter. Indeed, so little air is let 
into the ovens that only a small part of the substances 
in the coal is burned. It is mainly the gases in the coal 
that are burned up or driven out, one of these being 
the common illuminating gas, already mentioned 
(p. 65). The solid part that is left forms very light, 
porous coke. This can then be burned and made to 
furnish intense heat, if supplied with plenty of air. 
It is this heat that is used to melt the iron ore. 

Limestone is obtained from limestone quarries. 
It is valuable because it unites with the worthless 
part of the ore, forming a substance much lighter 
than iron, called slag. This is easily separated from 
the iron, and is thrown away. 

In reducing iron ore to iron, more coke 
than ore is used, so that it is a special ad- 











NORTH AMERICA 


6 8 



vantage to have the mines of coal and iron 
ore near each other. The coke, iron ore, 
and limestone are all dumped 
together into a high, towerlike 
structure, called a blast f urnace 
(Fig. 77). It is so named 
because a blast of air is forced 
through it, to produce a strong 
draft while the coke is burning. 

The great heat melts the ore 
and limestone, and the iron, 
being heaviest, sinks to the 
bottom of the fiery hot liquid. 

The limestone, united with 
those parts of the ore that are 
not iron, rises to the surface, 
forming worthless slag, which 
is drawn off through an open¬ 
ing in the furnace. Through 
a lower opening, the heavy 
iron is rain off into trenches, 
made of sind, on a sand floor. 


and shipped away, to be made into thousands of 
different articles. 



There is one main trench with 
many side branches, and each of 
these has still smaller branches connected with it, 
as shown in Figure 78. When the molten iron 
cools, the little bars of iron, called pig iron , are still 


Fig. 77. — A blast furnace in which iron ore is changed to iron. 


Some iron goods, such as stoves and the iron parts 
of your desk, are nothing more than this pig iron 
melted and cast, in molds, into the 


(2) The kinds 
of iron made 


Fig. 78. — Interior of a blast furnace. Here the white-hot iron is running 
down a trench near where the men are standing, then into side branches, 
where it cools as pig iron. 


attached to a larger one. These rough bars, which 
are small enough to be lifted, are then broken off 


shape that is desired. 

This is cast iron, 
which is so brittle that it easily 
breaks under a heavy blow. Other 
materials, such as knife blades, boiler 
plates, rails for railways, and watch 
springs are made of steel. This also 
is made of pig iron, though not until 
it has been melted again and greatly 
hardened and strengthened by an 
expensive process. Wrought iron, a 
third kind, is used where it is neces¬ 
sary for the metal to be tough and 
at the same time to bend easily, as 
-in iron wire. 

Almost every city in the 
Middle Atlantic States is en¬ 
gaged in iron (3) Centersfor 
work of one kind iron manufac- 
or another, some turin & 
in making iron and steel out 
of ore, others in manufacturing articles 
out of iron and steel. For example, in 













THE UNITED ST A TES 


69 


New York State, Buffalo manufactures 
automobiles, auto trucks, airplanes, and 
other articles. It has several thousand 
factories, many of them making iron goods. 
In New York City, iron and steel prod¬ 
ucts of almost all kinds are made. Iron 
and steel goods, automobiles, etc., are manu¬ 
factured in Syracuse ; stoves are made in 
Albany and TROY r ; and there are iron 
foundries in Binghamton, Elmira, and 
Schenectady. 

In Pennsylvania, Philadelphia manu¬ 
factures steel ships, cars, and hundreds of 
other iron products ; Pittsburgh, to which 
Allegheny is now united, makes steel and 
iron goods of nearly every kind (Fig. 79); 
and Scranton, Reading, Harrisburg, 


they also need to buy clothes, shoes, etc., this one 
factory, by furnishing the money for all these pur¬ 
chases, helps to support farmers, storekeepers, shoe 
factories, railways, and many other industries. 
However, since it is the farmer who buys the im¬ 
plements, it is he who has really caused the factory 
to be built. Thus one is dependent upon the other. 

Manufactories using three other mineral 

products are especially worthy of note. 

One of these is glass, which is 

, , , v * 2. Manufacture 

made at and near Pittsburgh, of glass> po t- 

WHEELING, and other places, tery, brick, and 

especially where natural gas cement 

furnishes cheap fuel. In the ^ Glass 

vicinity of the former city, there are sands 

which, when mixed with other substances, 

and melted, make an excellent quality of 



Fig. 79. — Homestead Steel Works, oue of the many iron and steel manufactories in and near Pittsburgh. 


Erie, Altoona, and a score of other places, 
have furnaces, foundries, and machine 
shops for iron manufacturing. In New 
Jersey, Jersey City, Newark, Camden, 
and Hoboken manufacture iron goods. In 
Delaware, Wilmington is noted for its 
cars and steel ships. In Maryland, Balti¬ 
more, like Philadelphia and New York, has 
a great variety of iron manufactures. 
Wheeling in West Virginia, and Rich¬ 
mond and Roanoke in Virginia, are also 
engaged in such work. 

The importance of even a single manufactory is 
proved by the following facts : At the Osborne works 
in Auburn, New York, where farming implements, 
such as mowers, rakes, reapers, and harrows are 
made, over 2700 men have been employed at one 
time, making one complete implement every forty 
seconds. In a year these men and their families 
consume about 9000 barrels of flour, 62,000 bushels 
of potatoes, 200,000 dozen eggs, 1,400,000 quarts of 
milk, 375,000 pounds of butter, and 1,300,000 pounds 
of meat, besides much coffee, tea, and sugar. Since 


glass. Pittsburgh is the greatest center in 
the country for the production of plate 
glass. 

In a number of places clay is found which 
is suited to the manufacture of pottery ; but 
much clay for pottery is im- ( 2 ) Pottery 
ported. A high grade of pot- and bricks 
tery is made at Trenton, N.J., where 
the pottery industry has become very 
important. 

So many bricks are used for building, 
that brick yards are found in the neighbor¬ 
hood of nearly all cities. Bricks are made 
of clay, which is first pressed into the brick 
shape when damp, then dried, and finally 
baked. In this process some of the grains 
melt, so that when cooled again, they cling 
together like stone. The clays near Phila¬ 
delphia, and the great clay beds of the 
Hudson Valley, above New York City, sup¬ 
ply an abundance of brick for these and 
neighboring cities. 













70 


NORTH AMERICA 


(3) Cement 


Portland cement has become of great im¬ 
portance within the last few years. It is 
made in many places, especially 
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
and New York. To make it, limestone 
is ground fine and mixed with coal dust. 
The two are then placed in a furnace, 
where the burning coal dust gives out so 
much heat that the limestone melts. It 
comes out of the furnace as a kind of 
clinker, which is then ground into fine pow¬ 
der for use. This cement 
has the valuable property of 
becoming hard like rock, or 
setting , when water is added. 

It is used for sidewalks, for 
buildings, dams, bridges, and 
many other purposes, taking 
the place of wood, stone, and 
iron. 

In the Middle Atlantic 
States, as in New England, 

3. Other kinds there are mai W 
of manufactur- other kinds of 

ing manufacturing. 

For example, cameras, optical 
instruments, and flour are 
made at Rochester ; silk at 
Paterson ; shirts, collars, 
and cuffs at Troy ; starch at 
Oswego ; cotton goods at 
Utica; boots and shoes at 
Binghamton and Roch¬ 
ester ; elevators, carpets, 
and hats at Yonkers; and 
furniture at Jamestown and Rochester. 
Cotton and woolen mills are found at a 
number of places, and the manufacture of 
clothing is of great importance in all the 
large cities. In the larger cities so many 
different kinds of manufacturing flourish 
that a score of pages would be required 
even to make a list of them. 

Since the Middle Atlantic States, unlike 
New England, produce great quantities of 
Commerce coal and iron, as well as many 
1. its extent other raw materials, they have 
more manufacturing, and a much greater 


population, than New England. Trade and 
transportation of goods are, therefore, much 
more extensive industries here. 

As in New England, the commerce is 
due, first of all, to the excellent harbors 
along the coast. Locate the 
three bays here : that is, New 
York Bay, Delaware Bay, and Chesapeake 
Bay. The most noted harbor of all is on the 
first, at the mouth of the Hudson River. 
The others are also very important, for 


2. The harbors 



Fig. 80. —The 


Erie Barge Canal and other water routes of New York and 
vicinity. 

large vessels can ascend Delaware Bay as 
far as Philadelphia, and Chesapeake 
Bay to Baltimore and Washington. 
The mouth of Chesapeake Bay, as well as 
its branches, has fine harbors, such as that 
of Norfolk. Note the cities in that sec¬ 
tion, and observe how easy it is to reach 
Richmond, the capital of Virginia, by 
water. 

Good harbors are of little use unless they 
can be easily reached front the 3 connections 
interior. New \ork Bay is with the interior 
especially favored in this re- (l) By water 


















THE UNITED ST A TES 


71 




Fig. 81. — The first railway train which ran out of Albany 

ocean tide rises as far as Troy, just above 
Albany. Thus, good-sized boats can go as 
far as that point. 

From near Albany, westward, the Erie 
Barge Canal (Fig. 80) has been dug for a 
distance of three hundred and fifty miles, 
connecting the Hudson 
River with Lake Erie 
at Buffalo. The canal 
follows in the main the 
route of the old Erie 
Canal, which is an easy 
route from the Eastern 
States to the central part 
of the country. From 
Buffalo, lake boats are 
able to go to Cleveland, 

Detroit, Chicago, Du¬ 
luth, and other ports on 
the Great Lakes. Thus 
by river, canal, and lake 
New York harbor is con¬ 
nected by water with a 
productive, thickly set¬ 
tled country extending westward for more 
than a thousand miles. This barge canal, 
at present little used, offers great possibili¬ 
ties for freight transportation. 


The Erie Canal is not 
nearly so important at 
present as 
it was at <2> By mU 
first, though it has now 
been enlarged to a barge 
canal. It is largely be¬ 
cause the railways carry 
freight much faster, 
that the canal has lost 
much of its importance. When the Erie 
Canal was dug, there were no railways; 
but when it was found that steam could 
be used for running locomotives, men be¬ 
gan to build railroads rapidly. 

One of the first and most important rail¬ 


Fig. 82. — The Empire State Express, one of the trains of the present day on the 
New York Central Railroad. This picture was taken while the train was running 
at a speed of 90 miles an hour. 

ways in the country was built in New York 
State (Fig. 81). This line, now called the 
New York Central, extends from the very 
heart of New York City along the Hudson 


spect, for it is connected by water with the 
very heart of the fertile country to the 
west. This water way first leads north¬ 
ward up the Hudson River, where the 


Several shorter canals have been built in New 
York, as may be seen in Figure 80; point them out 
and explain their importance. The smaller lakes are 
also used for transportation. Locate some of them. 
A number of canals have been built in Pennsylvania, 

as well as in New York ; but 
there is no canal connecting 
Philadelphia with the Great 
Lakes, because the Appala¬ 
chian Mountains and Alle¬ 
gheny Plateau lie in the way. 






















72 


NORTH AMERICA 



River to Albany, where it connects with 
Boston trains. From Albany westward to 
Buffalo the route is almost the same as 
that of the Erie Canal. At Buffalo the 
Central connects with railways leading to 
various points in the West. Several other 
railways connect New York with the West, 
some of them entering the city through 
tunnels under the Hudson River. 

As in the case of New York, great trunk 
lines enter Philadelphia. These connect 
it with the other cities of Pennsylvania, such 
as Harrisburg, the capital, 
and Pittsburgh, as well as 
with the cities of the North, 

South, and West. Among 
these lines are the Penn¬ 
sylvania Railway and the 
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 

Baltimore, Washington, and 
Richmond are likewise con¬ 
nected with the interior by 
important railways, the Penn¬ 
sylvania and the Baltimore 
and Ohio roads passing 
through the former two. 

The greatest of all the cities 
of the United States is New 
_ . . , ... York, which 
, „ , contains over 

X* New York 

City and vicinity h' ® million in¬ 
ti) Population habitants, and 2 r IG gg_ 

near New York is second only 

harbor , T i J 

to London among the great 

cities of the world. There are several 

other large cities near by, the largest being 

Jersey City, Newark, Elizabeth, 

Paterson, and Hoboken (Fig. 88), all 

west of the Hudson River in New Jersey. 

Although in another state, they are so 

closely related to New York in business 

that they may almost be considered a part 

of New York City; so also may Yonkers, 

which lies up the Hudson just above New 

\ ork City. Before it became a part of 

New York, the city of Brooklyn, on Long 

Island, was itself fourth among the cities 

of the country. More than six million per¬ 


sons, or one seventeenth of all the inhab¬ 
itants of the United States, live within 
twenty miles of New York harbor. 

It is, first of all , the excellent opportunity 
for shipping that has caused so great a num¬ 
ber of people to collect at this (2) R easons 
point. Not only can goods be for this vast 
easily sent far inland by water P°P ulatlon 
and rail, as already explained, but they 
can also be carried on the ocean to any port 
in the world. The harbor is deep enough 
for the largest vessels, and large enough to 


Brooklyn Bridge, connecting Brooklyn and New York. 

accommodate all that come. Thus it is the 
connecting link between the distant interior 
and distant ocean ports. More than half of 
all the foreign trade of the United States is 
carried on through this port, which is the 
leading shipping point in the New World. 

The second reason for the vast population 
here is the fact that this is the greatest 
manufacturing center in the New World. 
The place from which goods are most easily 
shipped in all directions is, for that very 
leason, one of the best places for the location 
of factories. 

Nearly every manufactured article that men need 
is made in or near New York, but one of the most 












THE UNITED STATES 


73 



Fig. 84. — A view of the New York skyline, looking east from the Hudson River at the lower end of 

Manhattan Island. 



extensive industries is the manufacture of clothing. 
Cotton and woolen goods are sent here from the fac¬ 
tories of New Eng¬ 
land and other sec¬ 
tions to be made 
into such articles as 
dresses, men’s suits, 
and underclothing. 

Large buildings, in 
which hundreds of 
men and women are 
employed, are given 
up to this work 
alone. 

Iron and coal are 
so near that the 
manufacture of iron 
goods is another 
great industry. The 
refining of petroleum 
is a third, the oil be¬ 
ing led, in pipes, from 
the oil fields of west¬ 
ern Pennsylvania to 
refineries in New 
Jersey, near the 
metropolis. The re¬ 
fining of sugar is 
another immense 
business in and near 
New York, as at 
Jersey City and 
Brooklyn. 


ping point and 
chants front all 


Being so im¬ 
portant a ship- 


Fig. 85. — The Flatiron building, built with this shape 
occupies the corner where two streets come together 
offices occupy every floor in this tall building. 


manufacturing center, mer- 
parts of the United States 
come here to buy 
goods for their 
stores. This 
business, called 
the wholesale 
trade , is a third 
reason why so 
many people have 
collected around 
New York harbor. 

At the southern 
end of Manhattan 
Island, on which 
much of New 
York is built, 
there are about 
eight square miles 
of the city given 
up almost entirely 
to the wholesale 
trade. Since the 
land is very ex¬ 
pensive, as much 
use as possible is 
made of every 
square foot of it. 
For that reason 
the buildings are 


because it 
Stores or 
























74 


NORTH AMERICA 


high (Fig. 84). Many of the stores and 
office buildings are thirty or forty and 
one even fifty-one stories in height. Goods 
manufactured in the city, together with 
those that are brought from all parts of the 
world, are collected in this part of New 
York. Merchants in Denver, Louisville, 
St. Paul, Galveston, Indianapolis, and other 
cities come here to purchase these goods, in 


columns. Others go by train in the subway, which 
extends for many miles underground, and even 
crosses under the rivers to Brooklyn, Jersey City, 
and Hoboken. 

IIow different all this is from the country, where 
only two or three houses may be seen at a time! 
Where sunlight and fresh air enter one’s home from 
all sides of the building ! Where there is plenty of 
room to play, with green grass, large trees, and 
singing birds in the yard ! No wonder that people 
living in great cities are anxious to visit the country, 


order to sell them again 
in their own stores. 


(3) Life in the 
great city 


The contrast between life 
in New York City and upon a 
farm (p. 106), 
is striking. 
On some of 
the streets scarcely anything 
but stores can be seen for ten 
or twelve miles, many of them 
being small, but some occupy¬ 
ing enormous buildings, and 
employing many hundreds of 
clerks. 

Families whose homes are 
in the city do not usually 
occupy a whole house, but 
often hundreds of people live 
in one building. Such a struc¬ 
ture, called an apartment build¬ 
ing, may be from six to eight 
stories high, and some are 
from fifteen to twenty. They 
are so arranged that one 
family occupies only a small 
part of one floor, called an 
apartment , or fiat. Other 


families live above and be¬ 
low, as well as on each side, 

being separated by only a few inches of brick or 
boards. Since land is so valuable, sometimes costing 
scores of dollars a square foot, there is usually neither 
front nor back yard. 

In the poorer sections of the city the people are 
even more densely crowded. Some of the children 
have never seen the country, and scarcely any birds, 
trees, or grass, except possibly in one of the city parks. 
In these crowded sections there are many foreigners, 
from all the nations of the earth. 

To escape such a crowded city life, tens of thou¬ 
sands of men live in suburban towns, or country 
homes, from ten to forty miles from their places of 
business. Every day they spend from one to three 
hours traveling back and forth. Some ride upon 
elevated railways built in the street, two, three, and 
four stories above the ground, and supported by iron 


Fig. 86. — Map showing location of Buffalo, Rochester, and Albany. 


the mountains, the lakes, and the seashore, during a 
few weeks in the summer ! 

Most of the other large cities in New 
York State are found along the water and 
rail route from New York 2 Buffaloand 
City to Lake Erie (Fig. 80). cities along the 
The most important of these Ene Canal 
is Buffalo (Fig. 86), on Lake Erie, at the 
western end of the Erie Barge Canal. Be¬ 
fore the canal was built, Philadelphia was 
larger than New York, and Buffalo was only 
a village. But both New York and Buffalo 
have had a very rapid growth since 1825, 
when the canal was completed. 



YoungsUovn 


Lockport 


'orb n to 


agara Fall 


NjTonawithda 


GRAND 


[ISLAM 


130 MU.E3 TO ONE INCH 


rvenomre 


Ontario Beach 
XL. O ST AMO 


Chariot’ 


» Ullifc ro t>N£ IHCH, 


PAKK 


•i Canal 


6 MILC6 TO 0N£ INCH 
































THE UNITED STATES 


75 


Since the canal (Fig. 87) is only seventy-five feet 
wide in its narrowest portions, and only twelve feet 
deep in its shallowest portions, all freight coming in 
lake steamers from the West, and bound farther by 
water, must be unloaded at, or near Buffalo, and 
placed in barges. These clumsy looking boats are 
made with broad, flat bottoms, in order that they 
may carry heavy loads without sinking too deep into 
the water. They are drawn by tugboats. 

Buffalo is a great railway center, as well 
as an important lake port. Here immense 
quantities of grain, flour, lumber, and iron 
from the West are transferred from lake 


T 

& 




Fig. 87. — A lock in the Erie Barge Canal. A boat is drawn 
into such a space, which is then filled with water, 
raising the boat to a higher level. This is then re¬ 
peated until the boat is raised to the level of the canal 
above the locks. Or, if a boat is going the other way, 
it is lowered in the locks by letting the water run out. 

vessels to railways as well as to canal boats ; 
and coal and manufactured goods shipped 
westward. There is also much manufactur¬ 
ing of many kinds (p. 69). 

Niagara Falls (Fig. 68), which are about 
twenty miles from Buffalo, supply electric 
power for use in lighting the city and in 


running street cars and factories. Much 
use is made of this electric power near the 
Falls, as at the city of Niagara Falls, 
which has become an important manufac¬ 
turing center. The Niagara power is used 
for running electric cars between Buffalo 
and Niagara Falls and between Buffalo and 
Lockport. This electric power is carried 
by wire even as far east as Syracuse. How 
far is that ? 

Name other cities along the Erie Barge Canal 
route (Fig. 80), and recall what has been said about 
them. Notice especially Lockport. At this point 
the land has a decided slope, so that the canal boats 
have to be raised and lowered, according to the 
direction they are going. This is done in inclosed 
parts of the canal, called locks (hence the name of 
the city), into one of which a boat enters (Fig. 87). 
Then, by turning in more water, or allowing some 
to run out, the boat is either raised or lowered at 
will. A canal boat thus enters one lock after an¬ 
other until it is raised to the top of the slope if going 
west, or lowered to the base if going east. 

New York State is prominent in education. 
Columbia University is located Education in 
in New York City; and at New York 
Ithaca, in tlie central part of State 
the state, is Cornell University, beautifully 
situated on the hillside above Lake Cayuga 
(Fig. 89). Both of these should be associ¬ 
ated with Princeton University in New 
Jersey, and with Harvard and Yale uni¬ 
versities in New England, as among the 
most important educational institutions in 
the country. North of New York City, on 
the Hudson River, is West Point, the place 
where the government school for the train¬ 
ing of army officers is located. At Pough¬ 
keepsie, also on the Hudson, is Vassar 
College, one of the leading colleges for 
women, like Smith and Wellesley in Massa¬ 
chusetts and Bryn Mawr near Philadelphia. 

Largely on account of the enormous popu¬ 
lation of New York City, with its extensive 
m a n u f a c.t u ring and great Rank of New 
wealth, New York is called the York State 
Umpire State; for it ranks first in the 
Union in population, manufacturing, com¬ 
merce, and wealth (Figs. 247 and 278). 









NEW 

HAMPSHIRE 



FIG. 88. 

Map to show the location of New York Citv, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. 

























































THE UNITED STATES 


77 



The leading cities southwest of New 
York as far as Richmond are located along 

3. Philadelphia the Fal1 Line - Name them 
and neighboring (Fig. G6). The 

Clties greatest of all is 

Philadelphia (Fig. 88), 
which has over 1,500,000 in¬ 
habitants, and ranks third 
among the cities of the United 
States. As in the case of New 
York, other important cities 
are near by, the largest being 
Trenton and Camden, in 
New Jersey; Chester and 
Norristown, in Pennsyl¬ 
vania; and Wilmington, in 
Delaware. 

Lines of steamships (Fig. 88) 
run from Philadelphia to the 
leading seaports of the United 
States and foreign countries, 
carrying both passengers and 
a multitude of products. Because of its 
nearness to the coal fields, Philadelphia has 
become a great shipping point for coal. 
The coal and iron have made possible the 
manufacture of cars, heavy machinery, and 


woolen goods ; there is much manufacturing 
of clothing; and in carpet manufacture this 
is the most important city in the country. 


Fig. 89.— A view of Cornell University with Lake Cayuga in the distance. 


Philadelphia is called the Quaker City , 
because it was founded by William Penn 
and other Quakers, many of whose descend¬ 
ants still live there. It was the home of 
Benjamin Franklin ; and at one time, be- 



Fig. 90.— Modern battleship, dirigible, and airplanes at the Naval Review in New York Harbor, December, 1918. 


steel ships (Fig. 90) at Philadelphia and 
Wilmington. Philadelphia is a great tex¬ 
tilemanufacturing center, making especially 


fore Washington was built, it was the capi¬ 
tal of the United States. Independence 
Hall, in which the Declaration of Independ- 














78 


NORTH AMERICA 


ence was signed, and the Constitution of 
the United States drawn up, is still standing 
there (Fig. 91). The leading educational 
institution of the city is the University of 
Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania has the city of Erie, on 
Lake Erie, corresponding to Buffalo in 
4. other cities New York; but, while it is 
in Pennsylvania an important shipping and 
manufacturing center, it is much smaller 
than Buffalo. Two reasons for this are 



Fig, 91.—Independence Hall, in Philadelphia. 


that it lacks water connection, across Penn¬ 
sylvania, with the Atlantic coast, and that 
it is not close to the eastern end of the 
lake. Goods from the Great Lakes that 
are bound for the coast are naturally car¬ 
ried eastward by water as far as Buffalo, 
before being transferred to the railroad. 

The city in Pennsylvania which ranks 
next to Philadelphia is Pittsburgh, to 
which Allegheny is now united, making it 
the eighth city in size in the United States. 
Located at the point where the Allegheny 
and Monongahela rivers unite to form the 
Ohio River, Pittsburgh has extensive water 
connections. It is a center for the manu¬ 
facture of iron and steel, and articles made 


from them. Indeed, it is the greatest cen¬ 
ter for such work in the country. Other 
cities in this locality, like Wheeling in 
West Virginia, being in the midst of the 
coal and iron region, are also extensively 
engaged in manufacturing. 

Near the head of Chesapeake Bay, in Mary¬ 
land, is Baltimore, the seventh city in size 

in the United States. It has „ 

, _ , . , . 5. Baltimore 

a good harbor, is connected 

with the West by trunk railways (Fig. 92), 
and easily receives coal from Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, and West Virginia. For these 
reasons it has become noted for manufactur¬ 
ing and shipping. 

Baltimore is the seat of Johns Hopkins 
University; and a few miles south, at An¬ 
napolis, is the United States Naval Acad¬ 
emy, which prepares officers for the navy, 
as West Point prepares them for the army. 

Southwest of Baltimore, on the Potomac 
River, is the District of Columbia, where 
Washington, our national 6. District of 
capital (Fig. 92), is situated. Columbia 
This site was chosen for the capital long 
ago, when this was near the center of the 
settled part of the country. On Figure 246 
you will find a star showing where that 
center is now. The District of Columbia 
does not form a part of any state, but is 
controlled directly by the national govern¬ 
ment. 

Washington is unlike other cities in two 
respects. In the first place, since it was 
certain that it would one day be very large, 
it was carefully planned, with wide streets 
and many parks. For that reason it is 
more beautiful than most cities. In the sec¬ 
ond place, the people, unlike those of other 
large cities, are not chiefly interested in 
manufacturing and commerce. Here reside 
the President and his cabinet, members of 
Congress, and the foreign ambassadors and 
other representatives of the great nations 
of the world. Besides these there are 
many thousands of men and women at 
work in the different departments of the 
government. The chief buildings, there- 









THE UNITED ST A TES 


79 



IffijSutou 


\( * * 

WAN 1 

^Reading 


-~ —* s / * 

^rrlsburg J 


Philadelphia 


6 MILES To 0 n£ INCH 


agerstowf 


Baftimon 


Delaware 

1 Hay [ 


Washi 


Alexendnax,) 


Arlington' 

National 

Cemttory 


Cujfa that It'S 


Alexandria [L 


fS'uifolk 


j^O)rrff carols 


C MILES TO ONE INCH 


6Q_milesjxlone inch 


fore, are not factories and private offices, 
but government buildings (Fig. 93). 

1 he mouth of Chesapeake Bay has already 
been referred to as the site of important har- 
7. Cities of bors. The 

Virginia principal 

city at this point is Nor¬ 
folk, a manufacturing 
and shipping center for 
cotton, lumber, iron, and 
other products. It is one 
of the leading Southern 
ports, and has been ad¬ 
vancing very rapidly. 

Near by is Portsmouth, 
where there are ship¬ 
yards belonging to the 
United States. Ship¬ 
building is an important 
industry at Newport 
News, also. 

The winter climate in 
this section is so mild 
that many people from 
the North go there for 
the winter season. Nor¬ 
folk, Newport News, and 
Old Point Comfort are 
popular winter resorts. 

The largest city of 
Virginia is Richmond, 
the capital of the state, 
at the head of tide water 
on the James River. It 
is important as a tobacco 
market, and as a rapidly 
growing manufacturing 
center. Other promi¬ 
nent cities in the state 
are Roanoke, Lynch¬ 
burg, and Danville. 


slope west of the mountains? 5. What rivers have 
cut passageways across the Appalachians ? Of what 
importance are these gateways? 6. State the effects 
of the Great Glacier on this group of states. 7. The 
effects of the sinking of the coast. 8. Describe the 


1. What mountains are 
there in the Middle Atlantic 

States, and in what parts are they? 
Review 2. What are the surface features 

Questions east ^ the mountains? 3. What 
is meant by the Fall Line, and why is it im¬ 
portant? 4. What facts can you give about the 


Fig. 92. — Map to show the location of Baltimore and Washington. 

climate. 9. Tell about the lumbering and related 
industries. 10. What kinds of fishing are there? 
11. What about the oyster industry? 12. Where 
are the best farming sections? 13. What can you 
tell about the dairying? 14. About the tobacco 

































80 


NORTH AMERICA 



industry? 15. What sections are noted for fruits 
and vegetables? 16. What about the market for 
these products? 17. What other farm products are 
raised in these states? 18. Where is salt found? 
IIow is it obtained ? 19. Where is coal found ? 
20. IIow was anthracite formed, and what is its 
special value ? 21. Describe the me’thod of mining 
coal. 22. Of preparing it for market. 26. In what 
ways is coal used? 24. Where are oil and natural 
gas found? 25. IIow have these been formed? 

26. IIow are they obtained from underground ? 

27. What products are made from the crude oil? 

28. How is the oil handled ? 29. Where is iron ore 
found in these states, and why is it 
portant? 30. Describe it; also, tell 
was formed and how it is mined. 


very im¬ 
ho w it 
31. What 


other important mineral products are 


found in 


50. For what are Philadelphia and neighboring 
cities important ? 51. Name and locate other cities 

in Pennsylvania. 52. State the principal facts 
about Baltimore. 53. Where is the District of 
Columbia? For what is it important? IIow does 
Washington differ from other large cities in the 
United States? 54. Name and locate the larger 
cities of Virginia. IV hat can you tell about each ? 

New York (N.Y.). 1. Where are the mountains? 

2. What are their names? 3. Why are forests exten- 
sive here? Why is there little Revjew Ques . 
agriculture among the mountains i States 

4. What about the surface features 3 

of the rest of the state? 5. What about the extent 
of agriculture ? 6. Tell about the dairying. 7. What 
fruits are important in New York, and where are 
they raised? 8. What waters form parts of the 


Fig. 93. — The National Capitol Building at Washington. 


these states? 32. How is iron made from ore? 
33. What are the kinds of iron? 34. Name and 
locate the principal iron-manufacturing centers. 
35. What can you tell about the manufacture of 
glass? 36. Pottery? 37. Brick? 38. Cement? 

39. What other kinds of manufacturing are there ? 

40. What about the extent of commerce in these 
states? 41. Where are the harbors? 42. What 
connections are there with the West by water? 
43. By rail? 44. What is the population about 
New York harbor? 45. Give several reasons for 
so great a population here. 46. Describe life in 
New York City. 47. Why are there so many cities 
along the Erie Canal ? Locate each. For what is 
each important? 48. Name and locate the lead¬ 
ing educational institutions in New York State. 
49. What is the rank of New York as a state? 


boundary of the state ? 9. Into what rivers do the 
lakes empty? 10. What rivers drain New York? 

11. State clearly the importance of the Erie Canal. 

12. Which cities mentioned in the text are on the 
canal? Which are on the Hudson? 13. Compare 
New York in size with all of New England. 
14. Draw a map of New York like that of Maine 
(p. 56). When studying each of the other states, 
do the same for it. 

New Jersey (N.J.). 15. Why should peaches and 

grapes grow better in New Jersey than in New Eng¬ 
land? 16. Name and locate each of the cities men¬ 
tioned in the text. 17. For what is each important? 
18. In what ways are some of the largest cities de¬ 
pendent upon the products of Pennsylvania ? 19. Add 
together the populations of all the cities within about 
twenty miles of New York. 














THE UNITED STATES 


81 


Pennsylvania (Pa. or Penn.). 20. Where would 
you look for the best farm land? 21. The principal 
forests? 22. The leading coal mines? 23. Where 
are the principal cities? Why located where they 
are ? 24. Why are there fewer lakes in Pennsylvania 
than in New York? 25. Should you expect to find 
fewer waterfalls also (p. 60)? 26. Why, then, is 
manufacturing so important in this state ? 27. What 
kind of manufacturing is especially important? 
Why? 28. What advantage do you see in the posi¬ 
tion of Pittsburgh? 29. By or through what states 
would one pass in going by boat from Pittsburgh to 
the Gulf? (See map, Fig. 40.) 30. Measure the 

length and width of Pennsylvania. Also find its 
area (Appendix, p. 452). 31. Is Pennsylvania larger 
or smaller than New York? Virginia? New Eng¬ 
land? 32. Is it larger or smaller than the state you 
live in? How much ? 

Delaivare (Del.). 33. Which is the principal city 
in this state? 34. For what is it noted? 35. Why 
is it especially well situated for that industry? 
36. Compare it with Albany in size. 37. The prin¬ 
cipal industries of the state are fruit raising and 
farming. What two reasons can you give for this 
fact? 

Maryland (Md.). 38. In which section is farming 

most important? Why? 39. What products can 
you expect from the mountains? Why ? 40. Notice 
how branching Chesapeake Bay is. Why is it so ir¬ 
regular? 41. What influence must this have upon 
the number of oysters found there? 42. Why is 
Baltimore favorably situated for receiving coal and 
iron from Pennsylvania? 43. For canning fruit, 
Vegetables, and oysters? 44. What might be the 
effect upon the grow T th of Baltimore if the land 
should rise, so that Chesapeake Bay disappeared and 
the Susquehanna flowed through it? 45. Compai'e 
the size of Baltimore with that of Boston. 

Virginia (Va.). 46. In what other state is the 

capital the most important city? 47. Locate the fer¬ 
tile Great Valley that is found in Virginia (Fig. 92). 

48. AYhat kinds of agriculture are carried on here ? 

49. What river separates Virginia from Maryland? 
What river crosses the middle of Virginia ? 50. Com¬ 
pare Richmond in size with Albany. 51. Ilow 
does Virginia rank in iron production (Fig. 270) ? 
52. Of what importance are the branching bays that 
enter Virginia? 53. If goods are to be shipped 
across the ocean from Kentucky (see map, Fig 40), 
is it nearer to send them to Norfolk or to New 
York ? 

West Virginia (W. Va.). 54. What disadvantage 

is it to this state that it has no seacoast? 55. How 
could we reach the ocean by water from West Vir¬ 
ginia ? 56. Where is the largest city ? Why there ? 

57. How does this city compare in size with Pitts¬ 
burg? 58. Should you expect to find much forest 
in this state? Why? 59. Much farming? 60. Coal, 


iron, petroleum, and natural gas are found here. Of 
what value are these? 61. What mountain range 
lies on the eastern boundary? 

62. Describe the surface features of this group of 
states from the relief map (Fig. 65). 63. Describe 

the differences in climate in the dif- 
ferent parts. 64. State the principal enera 
industries of the Middle Atlantic evi ®)' r 
States. 65. Make a list of the ten ^ ues 10ns 
largest cities. Add their populations together, and 
compare the result with the ten largest in New 
England. (See Appendix, pp. 453-454.) 

1. Collect pictures of Niagara Falls. 2. Examine 
a live oyster, or clam, to see what holds the two 
parts of the shell together. What is _ 
the use of the shell? 3. Find where u £? es 10ns 
the canned fruits and vegetables in a neighboring 
grocery store have come from. 4. Make a collection 
of the kinds of coal for the school ; of some coke 
and iron ore. 5. In small bottles collect products 
made from petroleum. 6. Collect samples of cast 
iron, wrought iron, and steel. 7. Estimate, by 
use of the map (Fig. 40), the distance by water 
from New York City to Duluth. 8. Visit a canal 
and examine a lock. 9. Make a toy canal having a 
lock in it. 10. Give reasons why freight rates are 
cheaper on canals than on railways. 11. Can you 
give a reason why the Erie Canal should have reached 
to Lake Erie instead of to Ontario? 12. Write a 
composition, giving the reasons why one might pre¬ 
fer to live in a large city; or in the country. 

13. Collect pictures of scenes in a large city; in the 
country. 14. Make a drawing of these states, in¬ 
cluding the principal rivers and cities. Locate the 
capitals. 

4. Southern States 

1. In what three parts of this section are there 
mountains? 2. What are the names of the moun¬ 
tains? 3. Which states have none ? . 

4. What are the principal tributaries U ^ 

to the largest river ? 5. Through or on the borders 

of what states would you pass in going by water 
from New Orleans to Chattanooga, in Tennessee? 
6. What natural boundaries do you find for this sec¬ 
tion? 7. Compare the coast with that of New Eng¬ 
land. Why the difference (p. 16) ? 8. Why are 

there so few lakes (p. 13) ? 9. The rivers that rise 

in western Texas — as the Colorado — are often quite 
dry in the western part of their course. Why 
(p. 38)? 10. Name the states in this group. 

11. Find the capital of each. 12. Which of the 
states have a seacoast? 13. Which have none? 

14. Which border the Mississippi? 15. Which 
drain into that river? 16. What reasons can you 
suggest for the fact that the largest city is near the 
mouth of the Mississippi ? 




6 























































TEE UNITED STATES 


83 



Modeled by 
EDWIN E. HOWELL 




rc\v\e« 


Fig. 95. —Relief map of the Southern States. 



Figure 


94 shows that the Appalachian 
Mountains continue southwest- 
ward as far as Alabama. In 
what states are they found ? 
These mountains are generally 
low, as they are in the Middle 
Atlantic States; but in western 
North Carolina and eastern Tennessee they 


Surface 

features 

1. Resemblance 
of northeastern 
part to the 
country 
farther north 


are much higher (Fig. 96). In fact, the 
highest peak east of the Mississippi River 
is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina. It 
rises 6711 feet, or 432 feet higher than 
Mount Washington in New Hampshire. 

East and southeast of the Appalachians 
the surface features resemble those of the 
Middle Atlantic States. First there is the 
Piedmont Plateau, which 
slopes gradually from the 
base of the mountains, where 
it is about 1000 feet above 
sea level, to the Fall Line. 
Trace this line in Figure 66. 
The Coastal Plain begins at 
the Fall Line at an elevation 
of 100 to 500 feet, and slopes 
gently toward the sea. It 
includes all of Florida, as 
well as parts of several 
other states. Name them. 

As in Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia, there is a 
rough plateau along the 
western base of the Ap¬ 
palachians. As in those 
states, also, this plateau is 


Copyright by JV. Brock. 


Fig. 96. — Asheville, situated in a valley among the high mountains of 
western North Carolina. 

















84 


NORTH AMERICA 


deeply cut by the river valleys, and is so 
rugged that it is s4ill covered by extensive 
forests and has few inhabitants. It gradu¬ 
ally becomes lower and more regular farther 
west, until it merges into the broad and 
fertile plains of the Mississippi Valley. 

The mountains and plateaus just men¬ 
tioned include only a small part of the 

2. Level charac- Southern States. The remain- 
ter of most of der consists mainly of plains 
this region (Fig. 97). The Coastal Plain 
extends westward along the coast of the Gulf 
of Mexico, and is very level. 

So also are the delta and flood 
plains of the Mississippi River. 

These plains rise toward the 
north and west until they 
merge into the plains and 
prairies that lie between the 
Appalachian and Rocky Moun¬ 
tains. Toward the north they 
reach no great height, but in 
western Texas they become 
high plateaus, from 4000 to 
5000 feet above the level of 
the sea. This plateau region 
is a part of the Great Plains 
of the West. 

In only a few places are 
these vast plains broken by 

3. Where the mountains. In 
mountains are northwestern 

Arkansas, for instance, are the 
low Ozark Mountains; and 
southwest of these is the mountainous coun¬ 
try of eastern Oklahoma. From here low 
mountains extend, with some breaks, to the 
central part of Texas. In the extreme 
western part of Texas, also, low spurs of the 
Rocky Mountains are found. Aside from 
the Appalachians, and these few small 
mountainous areas, the surface of the South¬ 
ern States is mainly made up of plains, 
which are usually very level. 

The coast is much more regular than 

4. The coast that of New England. Give 

line the reason for this as stated 

on page 16. There are numerous bays, 


but none so large as Chesapeake Bay and 
other bays in the North. Sand, drifted 
by waves and currents, has been built 
into sand bars, which often partly shut in 
the bays, and thus make .the coast more 
regular. 

The irregular coast of southern Florida 
is due to the work of coral polyps, which 
live in countless millions in the warm 
waters of the Gulf Stream (Fig. 313). 
These polyps have built the limestone rock 
of which the southern part of the Florida 


peninsula is composed. They have also 
made the many reefs and small islands, or 
keys, that lie just south of Florida. 

The low plains of the Southern States 
lie so far south that the climate is every¬ 
where warm, and the damp sea 

... , . , . The climate 

winds bring an abundant rain¬ 
fall to most parts. During the cold, dis¬ 
agreeable Northern winter, the weather in 
the South is mild, like spring and autumn 
in the North. Flowers are in blossom and 
birds are singing, many of the birds being 
Northern species, that have migrated there 
for the winter. Large numbers of Northern 



Fig. 97.— A view in the Southern States. Much of the land is as level as 
this. The crop raised in this field is the peanut, which the hoys and 
girls are picking from the roots of the peanut plants. 






THE UNITED STATES 


85 



people also go South to spend the winter. 
Among the principal winter resorts in 
Florida are Jacksonville, Tampa, and 
St. Augustine, one of the early Spanish 
settlements. 

The climate is cooler in the mountains, 
where there are many pleasant summer 
resorts, as in the mountains of the North¬ 
ern States. The best-known mountain 
resort is Asheville, in North Carolina 
(Fig. 96). 

The western part of Texas has a different 
climate from the other parts of the South ; 


Fig. 98. — A view at Miami in Florida, showing the palms and other 
vegetation of a warm climate. 


for it is too far from the sea to be reached 
by damp winds, and therefore receives little 
rain. As one travels westward from the 
Gulf of Mexico, he finds first dense forests ; 
then come plains with scattered trees, es¬ 
pecially the live oak; beyond this are broad 
prairies without trees, but with extensive 
cotton fields. Next a section is reached 
which is too dry for cotton ; and this coun¬ 
try, fitted only for ranching, stretches west¬ 
ward for several hundred miles. 

The South is now the greatest lumber 
section in the country. There are immense 
tracts of forest on the Coastal Plain, on the 


river flood plains, and among the moun¬ 
tains. Among the forests are many trees 

either unknown or uncommon _ . . 

i xt i „ Lumbering 

in the North, some of them, , __, . 

such as the magnolias, bearing trees, and their 

large, sweet-scented flowers. uses 

Another is the live oak, whose green leaves 

remain on the tree all winter, and whose hard 

wood is highly valued for shipbuilding. 

The long-leaved or hard pine, often called 
the Georgia pine , is a very valuable wood, 
and is much used for floors. This lumber 
is sent to all the cities of the North. It is 
shipped from the coastal cities 
of Charleston, S.C., Savan¬ 
nah and Brunswick, Ga., 
Jacksonville and Pensa¬ 
cola, Fla., and Mobile, Ala., 
as well as from other seaports. 

While the pine thrives on 
the low, sandy plains, the 
hardy oak and other valuable 
hard-wood trees are found upon 
the plateaus and’ upon the 
mountains (Fig. 99). Quan¬ 
tities of hard wood are shipped 
from Memphis and from other 
points. 

The method of lumbering in the 

South is very different from that of 

NewEngland fp.42). 
r c ' 2. Method of 

In the South there , , . 

, lumbenng 

are no heavy snows 

to level up the uneven ground and 

to cause floods in the streams. Therefore, logs 

cannot be floated down to tide water by means of 

spring freshets. On this account the sawmills are 

located in the midst of the forests, if possible on the 

river banks. To them the logs are brought, either 

by water, by wagon, or by train (Fig. 100), and then 

sawed into lumber. 

In this section there areno fishing banks where such 
food fish as cod and halibut live. But in the rivers, 
along the coast, and in the bays, are . . 
excellent food fish which are caught 6 

mainly for use in the South. 

There is also extensive oyster fishing in the shal¬ 
low bays, as in Mobile Bay, for instance; and in 
southern Florida there is sponge and turtle fishing. 
The sponge grows in the warm, shallow waters of 
the coral reefs ; and the immense sea turtle swims 







86 


NORTU AMERICA 




about on the surface of the ocean. The alligator, 
whose skin is made into the valuable alligator skin 
leather, is also found in Florida. 

With its fertile soil and. favorable climate, 
the South has naturally become a great agri- 
Agriculture cultural countiy. 

1. Its rank as It f ar better 

an industry suited to farming 
than either the Middle Atlantic 
or the New England States. 

Many people are engaged in 
other occupations, it is true, 
but farming is the leading in¬ 
dustry. 

The crop that exceeds every 
other in value, in the South, is 

2. cotton cotton. The early 

( 1 ) Its relation Colonists SOOll dis- 
to slavery covered that cotton 

could easily be raised here, and 
that there was a ready market 
for it abroad. The cotton fields, 
or plantations , were very large, 
and there was a vast amount of 
work in planting and picking 
the cotton, and in separating 

the fiber from the seed. This called for 
a great many laborers, — far more than 
could be found there. 

In those days it was common for people 
to own slaves, and negro slaves were offered 


with the spread of slavery in the Southern 
States. 

In 1910 the Southern States produced 
about 11,400,000 bales of ^2) The amount 
cotton, each weighing a little produced 


Fig. 100. — Lumbermen loading logs on a train in the forest of eastern 

North Carolina. 


for sale in many parts of the world. Since 
they were found to be well suited for work 
in the cotton fields, they were brought to 
our country for that purpose. In this way 
it came about that cotton had much to do 


Fig. 99. — Lumbermen at work cutting hard-wood logs in the mountains 
of western North Carolina. 


over 500 pounds. Of this, about 8,000,000 
bales were shipped abroad, especially to 
England. The remainder was manu¬ 
factured at home, mainly in New England 
and the South. In the same year the entire 
world produced a little less than 
20,000,000 bales, which makes 
it clear that the United States 
furnishes much more than half 
of all the cotton grown. Since 
so much of the clothing worn 
by men and women of all 
nations is made of cotton, we 
see that one of the chief in¬ 
dustries of the Southern 
States is to help clothe the 
peoples of the world. 

Cotton requires a rather fertile soil and 
a long, warm summer. These conditions 
exist throughout the region ( 3 ) The climate 
marked as the cotton belt in cotton requires 
Figure 253, but they are wanting in the 















THE UNITED STATES 


87 



raising and 
marketing it 


North, where the summers are altogether 
too short. 

The cotton seeds are planted in the spring, in rows 
about three feet apart, and the weeds are kept out 
until the plants are nearly grown. 
( 4 ) Method of These reach a height of two or three 
feet, and blossoms appear that pro¬ 
duce a pod or boll in which the cotton 
and cotton seed are contained. When ripe the 
pod bursts open, making a white, woolly ball, 
known as cotton , which resembles in appear¬ 
ance the downy substance in the thistle, or in 
the pod of the milk-weed (Fig. 101). 

When a great number of these bolls have 
opened, a cotton plantation presents a beauti¬ 
ful sight, — much like a field flecked with 
snow (Fig. 102). Then the busy season for 
the pickers begins. As many as,two or 
three hundred men, women, and children 
may assemble in one field, carrying 
bags to be filled with cotton, sing¬ 
ing and chattering the livelong day. 

When plucked from the 
boll, the cotton is attached 
to seeds, and these must be 
removed before the cotton 
can be of use. The seed¬ 
less cotton is tightly 
pressed into bales 
which are covered 
with coarse jute 
bagging, bound 
with iron bands, 
and shipped away 
to the warehouses, 
to be sold. 

Sugar cane 
is a second im¬ 
portant crop 
that is confined 
to our South¬ 
ern States. 

There are a 
number of 
plants from 

„ „ whose 

3 Sugar cane 

and sugar 

( 1 ) Plantsfrom 
which sugar is 
obtained 


Fig. 101. — Picking cotton on a Southern plantation. The white, woolly 
cotton is seen on the plant in the lower right-hand corner. 


sap sugar is made. 
One of these, the sugar maple, 
has already been mentioned 
(p. 50) ; another is the sugar 
beet, raised in great quantities 
in Europe, and also, of late, in many of our 
states. This beet is now a very important 
source of sugar, because it can be raised in 


a cool, temperate climate. For a long time, 
however, the principal source of sugar has 
been the sugar cane, a plant that looks 
somewhat like corn (Fig. 103). 

Sugar cane requires a fertile soil, and 
grows only in warm regions where there is 
little or no frost, even in winter. ( 2 ) where sugar 
For this reason cane is grown 
most of the cane sugar comes 
from tropical lands, such as 
the Hawaiian Islands, the 
Philippines, Porto Rico, and 
Cuba (Fig. 255). In our 
oym country the most noted 
sugar district is the delta 
of the Mississippi River 
Louisiana; but sugar 
raising is increasing in 
importance in Texas 
and Georgia. 

Some of the plantations 
in these states have several 
thousand 

(3) How it is 
acres in ' ' . . . 

cultivated 

sugar cane. 

The cane is planted either 
in the fall or spring, in rows 
about six feet apart. The 
stalks grow in the summer 
to be two or more inches in 
diameter, and reach such a 
height that a man 
riding through a 
field on horseback 
may be entirely 
hidden from view. 
The cane is ready 
to be cut in the 
fall, after the 
middle of Octo¬ 
ber. As soon as 
the stalks are cut, 
they are drawn to 
the sugarhouse in wagons, or, on the larger planta¬ 
tions, in railway cars (Fig. 104). 

In the sugarhouse the cane is ground 
between rollers in order to squeeze out the 
juice. The waste cane, left (4 ) How the 
after the juice is pressed out, sugar is 
is used as a fuel to run the obtamed 
engines of the sugarhouse; the juice or 









88 


NORTH AMERICA 




sap is placed in large vats and warmed 
to evaporate the water in it and to crys¬ 
tallize the sugar. This leaves two prod¬ 
ucts, a thick black molasses and brown 
sugar. Some large 
sugarhouses produce as 
much as 14,000.000 
pounds of sugar in a 
year. 

The crude, brown 
sugar is sent from the 
sugarhouse to some re¬ 
finery, either in New 
Orleans or in the 
North. At the refinery 
it is changed to white 
sugar, from which the 
various grades of granu¬ 
lated, powdered, and 
lump sugar are made. 

In changing the brown 
to the white sugar, 
burned bones, called boneblack, are used to 
filter out the impure parts. The bones are 
obtained from Chicago, and elsewhere, where 
large numbers of animals are killed for meat. 


and is not of great value to the sugar 
raiser. 

Rice, a third valuable crop in the South, 
is one of the most important foods in the 


Fig. 103. — Cutting the sugar cane on a plantation in Louisiana 


The molasses is used for various pur¬ 
poses, some of it being manufactured into 
sirup and molasses for the table, and 
some of it into rum. Molasses is a by¬ 
produet, like sawdust in a lumber mill, 


Fig. 102. — A cotton field on a Southern plantation in the picking season. 

world ; it is, in fact, the chief food of some 
nations, such as the Chinese. 4 Ri ce 
It is not eaten so extensively (i) itsimpor- 
in OUr country, but Still we tanceasafood 
consume large quantities, — 
far more, indeed, than we 
raise. 

One reason why we have 
raised too little rice for our 
use, is that we (2) Why we 
have not had the may raise more 
proper conditions in the J uture 
for its growth. Rice requires 
a warm climate and a damp, 
even swampy soil. The cli¬ 
mate is suitable in many parts 
of the South, but the wet soil 
is not so common. On the 
Coastal Plain and river flood 
plains, from the Carolinas to 
Texas, there is some such 
land, and there rice culture has long been 
carried on, the principal districts being 
South Carolina and Louisiana (Fig. 105). 

Recently the area of rice production has 
been greatly increased by irrigation. By 









THE UNITED STATES 


89 



leading the water from streams, or springs, 
it has been found possible to make the soil 
as wet as necessary even on some of the 
higher, well-drained plains. With irriga¬ 
tion, rice culture may be carried on over 


5. Tobacco 


Fig. 104. — Carrying the sugar cane to the cars which will take it to the sugarhouse. 

A scene on a Louisiana plantation. 


much of the warmer part of the South. 
Some day, therefore, our country may supply 
all the rice we need, and even have some to 
spare. Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and 
South Carolina produce most of the rice now 
raised in the country, though some comes from 
other Southern States and from California. 

To raise rice the ground must first be prepared, 

(3) Method of as ^ or ot ^ er g rains - After the seeds 
cultivating and are planted, the fields are flooded. 
preparing for As the plant grows, it forms a slender 
•market stalk, from three to six feet high, 


upon the top of which appears a head of seed some¬ 
what resembling a head of oats. Shortly before the 
harvest season the water is drawn off, so that horses 
may be used in harvesting the crop. The rice is 
then cut and the kernels threshed out, as in the case 
of wheat (Fig. 105). After the hull is removed, the 

grains are sent to New Or¬ 
leans, Galveston, Savan¬ 
nah, or Charleston, to be 
polished, after which they 
are ready for market. 

Unlike cotton, rice, 
and sugar cane, tobacco 
is not con¬ 
fined to our 

Southern States. Yet 
it is naturally a Southern 
plant, and is raised in 
the North in only a few 
places where conditions 
are especially favorable, 
as in Kentucky and Vir¬ 
ginia, which rank re¬ 
spectively first and third in this product in 
the United States (p. 62). Tobacco is cul¬ 
tivated in all the Southern States, but most 
of all in North Carolina, which ranks second 
in the Union. Durham, North Carolina, 
and Clarksville, Tennessee, are centers 
for trade in tobacco. Name some Virginia 
cities likewise engaged in the tobacco 
trade. 

Fruits, such as strawberries, watermelons, 
apples, peaches, pears, grapes, 6 Fruits and 
and oranges, flourish in the vegetables 



Fig. 105. — Threshing rice on a large rice plantation in Louisiana. 












90 


North America 



pine forests of the Coastal Plains, especially in 
Florida and Georgia. 

An important draft animal in the South, well suited 
to the warm climate, is the mule. On the fertile 
plains, especially in Tennessee, Missouri, and Ken¬ 
tucky, there are stock farms where particular at¬ 
tention is paid to raising mules and fine breeds of 
horses. 

In the western part of Texas, where there 
is little rainfall, grazing is the „ 
chief industry. The climate anC lng 


Fig. 106 — A field of tobacco in the South. 

is so dry that the grass cures, and becomes 
hay, while still upon the ground, making 
excellent food for cattle (Fig. 109) and 
sheep. One may travel for miles over 
the plains of western Texas, seeing little 
else than a ranch house here and there, 
with an occasional herd of cattle or sheep, 
and cowboys riding to and fro. 

While there is no reason for large cities 
here, and the life of the cowboys and sheep 
herders is a lonely one, it is their work that 
helps to supply our tables with meat, and to 


warm climate of the Southern States ; so 
do vegetables, such as peas, beans, potatoes, 
sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. All these 
ripen earlier than in the North. 

Florida is so far south that it has fruits 
of an entirely different kind. Besides 
oranges (Fig. 107), there are lemon and 
grape-fruit groves in many parts of the 
state. In southern Florida the climate is so 
warm that even tender tropical plants, such 
as cocoanuts and pineapples, 
thrive there. The pineapple 
plant, whose fruit is nestled 
in the midst of sharp-pointed 
leaves, grows especially well 
on the low coral keys and 
reefs that fringe the southern 
tip of Florida. 

Fruits and vegetables from 
the South are sent in great 
quantities to the North, 
where they appear in the 
markets early in the spring. 

The oranges are sent through¬ 
out the winter. Thousands 
of bushels of fruit and vege¬ 
tables are shipped at one 
time, by fast train or steamer, 
and at the proper season one 
may even see a whole train 
load of strawberries. Quan¬ 
tities of fruits and vegetables 
are canned in the South. 

Many other crops besides 
those named are raised in the 
7. Other farm South, com, 
products wheat, and hay being among 

the most important. An immense quantity 
of corn is produced (Fig. 108), and over 
even a wider area than cotton itself; but 
since corn and wheat are raised even more 
extensively in other states, these grains are 
treated later (pp 108 to 110). 


Peanuts and sweet potatoes are two valuable prod¬ 
ucts of these states. Stock of various kinds, such 
as horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, is also raised, each 
plantation usually having some of these animals. 
Large numbers of cattle are also reared in the open 






THE UNITED ST A TES 


91 



give us our woolen clothing and our shoes. 
Explain how hundreds of New England 
families depend for their daily meat upon 
the products of these distant lonely ranches. 
How dependent people are upon one 
another! 

There is a great variety of minerals in the 
South ; but here, as in the North, the most 
Mining important of all are coal and 

1. Coal and iron iron ore. One fourth of the 
coal of the country, and about one ninth of 


Fig. 107. — An orange grove near Orlando, Florida. 

the iron ore, now come from the states south 
of Pennsylvania. 

Coal and iron ore are found among the 
mountain ranges, and in the Appalachian 
Plateau, all the way from Pennsylvania to 
Alabama. They are mined in several places, 
as near Chattanooga in eastern Ten¬ 
nessee ; but most noted of all is the district 
around Birmingham, Ala., near the ex¬ 
treme southern end of the Appalachian 
system. This region is so rich in coal and 
iron that it now ranks as the second iron- 


producing section of the continent; and in 
coal production Alabama ranks seventh 
among the states of the Union. The Bir¬ 
mingham region is especially favorable be¬ 
cause iron ore, coal, and limestone, the three 
materials necessary for the production of 
iron and steel (p. 67), are found there close 
together. 

Coal is obtained not only in the Appa¬ 
lachian Mountains and Plateau, but in cen¬ 
tral Texas and Oklahoma. There are also 
iron ore and other minerals 
here. Beneath the plains 
bordering the Gulf of Mex¬ 
ico, from the Rio Grande to 
Georgia (Fig. 268), there is 
much brown coal, or lignite. 
This is not so good as the 
bituminous coal of the Ap¬ 
palachians, but it is valuable, 
and can be used for many 
purposes. 

There is not much natural 

gas produced in the Southern 

States, though j 

. \ ° 2. Oil and gas 

it is found in 

several of them. The great¬ 
est quantity comes from 
Oklahoma. Petroleum, how¬ 
ever, is of very great im¬ 
portance. Vast quantities 
have been found in Texas 
and Louisiana, near the Gulf 
of Mexico, and this is now 
one of the most noted oil 
regions in the world. Much 
is also found in northern Louisiana, and 
some in Tennessee. 


There are valuable deposits of granite in several 
of the states, especially North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Arkansas, and Texas. Ex- ^ Building 
cellent sandstone for building, and stones and c i a y S 
limestone for various uses, are also 
widely distributed. Among the important uses of 
the limestone here, as in the North, is the manufac¬ 
ture of Portland cement (p. 70). 

There is much beautiful marble in Texas, Georgia, 
and Tennessee. The Georgia marble^ is widely 
known for its great beauty; and near Knoxville, 








92 


NORTH A M ERIC A 


in eastern Tennessee, 
marble of different colors is 
quarried (Fig. 110). What 
city in Vermont is likewise 
noted for marble (p. 45) ? 

Clays of fine quality for 
bricks, tiles, etc., are found 
in many places; and there 
are also deposits of clay 
suited to the manufacture 
_of high-grade pottery. 

The soil of farms 
often becomes worn 

out and 

4. Phosphates 

needs a 
fertilizer. There are 
various kinds of fertil¬ 
izers, such as manure 
and bone dust, which 
furnish the plant food 
needed by crops; but 
one of the most impor¬ 
tant kinds is mineral 
phosphate. This is 
found in great quan¬ 
tities in Florida, Ten¬ 
nessee, and South 
Carolina; and from 
these states much of 
our phosphate is now 
obtained. Besides be¬ 
ing used in the South. 


Fig. 108. — A field of corn in Arkansas. Notice how 
very tall the corn grows in this warm climate. 


Charleston, Jack¬ 
sonville, and Tampa 
for use on farms in the 
North. 

The phosphate is a de¬ 
posit in which are found 
fossil remains of many 
animals, such as the teeth 
of sharks, and the bones 
and teeth of many large 
land animals, such as the 
huge mastodon, which once 
lived in this country. 

The South produces a 
variety of other minerals. 
Salt, for in¬ 
stance, is 
obtained in 
Texas and Louisiana. 
Bauxite, the mineral from 
which aluminum is made, 
is found in Georgia and 
Alabama. Gold is mined 
in South Carolina, Georgia, 
and Tennessee; silver in 
Texas and South Carolina; 
and copper in Tennes¬ 
see. Some precious stones, 
such as the sapphire and 
the diamond, are also 
found. The South is, there¬ 
fore, a rich mineral re¬ 
gion, and the mining is 
rapidly growing in im¬ 


5. Other min¬ 
eral products 


it is shipped from | Before 


portance. 

the Civil War there was little 




Fig. 109. — Cattle on a ranch in western Texas. 








THE UNITED STATES 


93 




Manufacturing 

1 Great ad¬ 
vances in this 
industry 


Fig. 110. — A marble quarry near Knoxville, Tennessee. 


manufacturing in the South. The negroes, 
who did most of the hand labor, lacked the 
training necessary to handle 
machinery ; and the raw 
materials were shipped away, 
while manufactured articles 
were brought back. Thus cotton went to 
England, New England, and elsewhere, some 
of it to be returned in the form of cloth; 
and lumber was shipped to various Northern 
cities, often to be sent back in 
the form of furniture. Very 
little iron ore or coal was mined 
in those days. 

The situation is now greatly 
changed (Fig. 111). Indeed, 
the advance made in manufac¬ 
turing, since the Civil War, has 
been wonderful. The raw mate¬ 
rials are very abundant, and of 
many kinds, as we have seen. 

Name some of them. Most of 
these raw materials must be 
changed more or less for use, 
and this calls for manufacturing. 

There is a great abundance of 


coal, to furnish power for 
such work ; and there is also 
much water power along the 
Fall Line, in the Piedmont 
Plateau, and among the 
mountains. The conditions 
here are very favorable, 
therefore, for manufacturing. 
Why, then, should these raw 
materials be sent far away 
to be manufactured ? 

This is a question that the 
Southern people have asked 
themselves ; and they have 
answered it by the manufac¬ 
ture of many goods on a 
grand scale. There is every 
reason, too, to believe that this 
manufacturing will rapidly 
increase in the future, for 
the South has all that is 
necessary for very extensive 
manufacturing, and the people are awake 
to their opportunities. 

Although much of the pine, oak, and 
other lumber is sent North, a great deal of 
it is made into doors, blinds, 2 Manufac- 
furniture, etc., at factories in tures from the 
Macon, Montgomery, Mo- forest 
bile, Chattanooga, Memphis, Little 
Rock, and Atlanta (Fig. 112). High 
Point, in North Carolina, “the Grand 


1 880 
3 


Proportion exported 
Proportion sent to Northern states 
3 ■■ Proportion consumed in South 


Fig. 111.- 


Diagram to show what was done with the Southern cotton in 
1910, as compared with 1880. 

















94 


NORTH AMERICA 


Rapids of the South,” is now one of the 
most noted furniture manufacturing centers 
of the South, although a few years ago it 
was hardly known. There are now eighty 
manufacturing plants there. 

The Southern forests are of value in several other 
ways. From them are obtained turpentine, wood alco- 



Fio. 112. — A planing mill in eastern North Carolina. 
Notice the great piles of boards in the yard behind 
the mill. 


hoi , and tannic acid (p. 51). The tannic acid from 
the hemlock bark of the North gives the leather a 
red color, so that shoes made from it need to be 
blackened; but tannic acid from the chestnut oak 
of the South gives a lighter, or tan, color, and it is 
from such leather that tan shoes are made. 

Turpentine is obtained from the sap of the long- 
leafed pine. The bark is cut through near the base 
of the tree, when the liquid oozes forth. This is 
then distilled in a furnace, and one of the products 
is turpentine. Other products obtained from the 
pine are resin, tar, and wood alcohol. Thus the 
long-leafed pine is a very valuable tree, for all these 
products are used in every part of the country. 

Birmingham, the leading iron manufac¬ 
turing center of the South, and for that 

3. Manufacture reason called the “ Pittsburgh 
of iron and Steel of the South,” is located Oil ail 
g00ds old cotton plantation. In 1880 

the town had a population of 3086 ; but 
now it contains over 181,000 persons. 
What special advantages has it (p. 91)? 
In and near this city, as at Pittsburgh, the 
iron ore is reduced to iron in blast furnaces 
(p. 68) and then changed to steel and vari¬ 
ous other useful articles. 

Several other cities near the mountains 
are noted for their iron manufacturing, as 
Rome and Atlanta, in Georgia, and Knox¬ 


ville and Chattanooga, in Tennessee. 
Chattanooga is also a center for the manu¬ 
facture of farm machinery. 

In some cities there are many cotton 
mills; for example, in Charlotte, N.C., 
there are twenty-three, and in 
and near Spartanburg, S.C., f ac Srin°g manU * 
thirty-eight. In other towns (1) Extent of 
there are only one or two. cotton manu- 
From Danville, Va., to At- and 

_ leading centers 

lanta, Ga., cotton mills are 
very numerous, and there are others through¬ 
out the cotton belt. Indeed, the Piedmont 
Plateau has become one of the greatest 
cotton manufacturing sections in the world. 
The map (Fig. 113) shows the distribution 
of these mills in a number of the Southern 
States. 

While hundreds of Southern cities and 
towns now manufacture cotton cloth and 
cotton-seed oil, Charlotte, N.C., Colum¬ 
bia, Greenville, and Spartanburg, 
S.C., and Augusta, Columbus, and 
Atlanta, Ga., lead in these industries. 
What cities in New England are noted 
for cotton manufacture? 



Fig. 113. — A map to show the extent of cotton manufac¬ 
turing in the South. 


The following facts from an Alabama cotton mill 
give some idea of the size and output of these mills. 
This particular mill employs 600 
hands, including men, women, boys, ®} t ^°^ning of 
and girls, and pays them about ° WW 
$2000 a week in wages. Every day this mill con¬ 
sumes 15 bales of cotton, each weighing about 500 
pounds. Since the average yield per acre of land 
is about 250 pounds, you can easily figure out how 




















THE UNITED STATES 


95 



many acres of cotton are called for in one year by 
this single mill. 

In this mill, as in many others, white people are 
employed to do the work. While many of the mills 
are in the cities, others are in the country; and 


Fig. 114. — Interior of a cotton mill in the South, 
machines, and each one works steadily weaving 
cloth. 


there villages have sprung up near the mills. Some 
of these new villages are already so large that they 
have their own schoolhouses and churches. 


of cotton, the value of the cotton seed from 
a large plantation is considerable. The 
part of the seed that is left, after the oil is 
pressed out, has been found to be an ex¬ 
cellent food for cattle, and a 
good fertilizer. Thus the 
cotton plant now produces 
two valuable substances be¬ 
sides the cotton fiber. 

Some of the other articles 
manufactured in the South 

have already been 5 other manu- 
mentioned ; for factures in the 
example, tobacco South 
(p. 89) and sugar (p. 87). 
In each case the work is con¬ 
fined mainly to the section 
from which the raw material 
comes. Thus, New Orleans, 
near the sugar plantations, 
has large sugar refineries ; 
and Raleigh, Durham, 
Winston-Salem, and other 
cities in northern North Caro¬ 
lina, manufacture tobacco. 

Key West, on a small coral key south of 
the Florida peninsula, is also noted for its 
tobacco factories. It is so near Cuba that the 
Havana tobacco, so much prized by cigar 
smokers, is easily obtained. There is also 
cigar manufacturing at Tampa. Why there? 
Besides the articles mentioned, the South 
makes a great variety of other goods from the 
products of the farm, ranch, forest, and mine. 


There are scores of 
the cottou fiber into 


In the early days the cotton seeds were 
slowly picked out of the cotton by hand, 

(3) Value of the and then thrown away. Whit- 
cuttongin ney’s invention of the cotton 
gin, in 1793, made it possible for one laborer 
to separate as much as a thousand pounds 
from the seed in the same time that five 
or six pounds could be cleaned by hand. 
That, of course, made cotton raising far 
more profitable, and led the planters to 
cultivate it more extensively. 

The seeds have also been found to be of 
value, and are no longer thrown away. 

(4) Value of I hey are made into cotton- 
cotion seed seed oil , which is used in mak¬ 
ing soap, imitation lard and butter, and a 
substitute for olive oil. 1 here are from 
two to three pounds of seed to one pound 
of cotton, and since, on the average, one 
acre produces two hundred and fifty pounds 


Fig. 115.— A cotton mill at Huntsville, Alabama. There 
are many others as large as this, and many, also, that 
are even larger. 



i tunrn 





























9 G 


NORTH AMERICA 



Biruimj 

/•w-fi 


wVft 

\Corneli\jVi 


rfioSvim 


[ackson 


.NCISCO 1 


(Columbus 


'iikshiiifMackso^ 


Montgomery 


Months of thf i 


With so many raw materials and so much 
manufacturing, commerce hi the South is 
Transporta- extensive, 
tion of goods There are 
excellent opportunities 
for transportation of 
goods both by rail and 
by water. While some 
of the harbors are shal¬ 
low and partly closed by 
sand bars, others are deep 
enough‘for large ocean 
ships. The principal sea¬ 
ports are kept open by 
building jetties, and by 
dredging the sand away. 

Here, as in the North, the 
government spends large 
sums of money each year 
for this purpose. 

The Mississippi River 
is a great artery of trade 
(Fig. 117), with many 
navigable branches; and 
on the Coastal Plains 
there are numerous short 
streams navigable for 
small boats. Railroads, 
also, are well developed, 
connecting all important 
points in the South with 
one another, and with 
other parts of the coun¬ 
try. Among these are 
some of the leading rail¬ 
ways of the country, such 
as the Southern, the 
Southern Pacific, and the 
Louisville and Nashville 
railways. 

The greatest of all the 
Southern 

Leading cen¬ 
ters of com- cities is 

merce New Orleans, the largest in 

l. New Orleans the eastern part of the United 
(l) Its size and States south of St. Louis, with 
a population of over three 
hundred thousand. New Orleans is situ¬ 


ated at the gateway to the most productive 
valley in North America, about one hundred 


Lake 

rant chart rain 


I V* V / 


0 10 20 30 40 50 


115 MILES TO ONE INCH 


Fig. 116. — Map to show location of New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, 

and Atlanta. 


miles above the mouth of the Mississippi. 
On the map (Fig. 11G) you will see that 
an arm of the sea, called Lake Pontcliar- 
train, reaches up to the city, and that New 
Orleans is located at the place where the 











































THE UNITED ST A TES 


97 




river and lake are nearest together. At 
this point the Mississippi makes a great 
bend, in the form of a half-circle, which 


explains the name, Crescent City , commonly 
given to New Orleans. * 

That particular spot was selected for the 
site of the city, because the sailing ships of 
two centuries ago could reach 
it by crossing the lake, while 
they could not sail a hundred 
miles up the river without 
great difficulty. On account 
of the shallow water, the large 
ocean steamers now in use 
cannot enter the lake, but 
they can reach the city b} r 
the river route. 

When we recall the advan¬ 
tages of New York’s water 

(2 ) its interior connection with 
connections by the West, we 
water and rail can rea dily un¬ 
derstand the growth of New 
Orleans. Pittsburgh on the 
Ohio, St. Paul on the Mississippi, and 
Kansas City on the Missouri, can all be 


reached from New Orleans by boat (Fig. 
40). How do these distances compare with 
those from New York to Chicago and 
to Duluth ? Also, how far 
apart are Pittsburgh and Kan¬ 
sas City ? Much of the 
country between these cities 
is within easy reach of the 
Mississippi or some of its 
branches. 

There is now a plan to improve 
the Mississippi River so that large 
boats can navigate it more easily. 
When this is done, the port of New 
Orleans will be even more impor¬ 
tant as a shipping point for the 
fertile Mississippi Valley. 

Like New York, New Orleans is 
connected with the interior of the 
country by rail as well as by water. 
The Illinois Central Railway ex¬ 
tends all the way to Chicago, run¬ 
ning parallel to the river for much 
of the distance ; the Louisville and 
Nashville reaches Louisville, St. 
Louis, and other cities; and the 
Southern Railway runs from Wash¬ 
ington to Atlanta, with connections to New Orleans, 
and thence the Southern Pacific Railway extends 
westward, across Texas, to California. 

Much of the land on which New Orleans is built 
is frequently below the level of the river. In fact, 


Fig. 118. — The embankment, or levee, along the Mississippi, built to prevent 
the river from overflowing the flood plain. 

| from Memphis southward, a large part of the land 
| on either side of the Mississippi is a low flood plain, 


Fig. 117. — River steamers at New Orleans. These boats carry large amounts 
of freight, as well as passengers, up and down the river. 

















98 


NORTH AMERICA 


spreading out for many miles, and often threatened 
with floods. The mighty river, receiving tributaries 
from regions thousands of miles 
(3) Difficulties a p ar t, is charged with yellow mud, 
c ^ ms ^ hy t/ie which gradually sinks to the bottom 
as the current becomes slower toward 
the mouth. This has built up the bed of the river, 
so that at high water the floods would spread out 
over the low land if they were not shut in by strong 
walls of earth, called levees (Fig. 118). 

In spite of their strength, these embankments 
sometimes give way, especially in the springtime, 
when the snows are melting in the North; then the 
destruction to life and property is appalling. At 
such times hundreds of men patrol the levees, night 


midwinter weather is rarely colder than 
the early autumn of the North. What 
must be the effect of this climate upon the 
style of houses ? Also upon the presence 
of birds, flowers, and fruits in winter ? 

Memphis and Atlanta (Fig. 116) are 
two other large and rapidly growing 
southern cities. The for- 2. Memphis 
mer is situated in Tennessee, and Atlanta 
on a bluff with the Mississippi River at 
its base. Why is that a favorable loca¬ 
tion for the growth of a large city ? Mem- 



Fig. 119. — A view of Atlanta. 


and day, to check the slightest leak. A hole made 
by even a crawfish may be the beginning of a de¬ 
structive flood. 

Because the land near the river is so low, the 
soil on which New Orleans stands is very damp. 
Indeed, in digging foundations for buildings, 
water is reached a short distance below the sur¬ 
face. On that account it has been difficult to pro¬ 
vide proper drainage. A system of drainage and 
sewerage has, however, been established at great 
expense. 

New Orleans once belonged to France 
(p. 30), and one person in six in the city 
(4 ) People, and j s of French stock. French 
climate of the is still spoken by some of 
city these. 

Frost seldom reaches this citv, and the 

«• • 


phis is a noted river port, and one of the 
great cotton centers and lumber markets of 
the South. 

Atlanta (Fig. 119), the “ Gate City,” is 
one of the few large cities not located upon 
a water route. Northeast of it, for over 
three hundred and fifty miles, there is no 
easy pass across the mountains, and until 
1880, in all that distance no railway crossed 
the Appalachian Mountains. Near Atlanta, 
however, there is a good route; and rail¬ 
ways reaching westward from the Carolinas, 
or northern Georgia, come together here, 
making Atlanta a great railway center. 

Owing to its favorable situation as a rail¬ 
way shipping point, Atlanta is the leading 





















THE UNITED STATES 


99 




interior wholesale market of the South ; 
and it surpasses all Southern cities in the 
number and variety of its manufactures. 


Among its factories are lumber, cotton, and 
iron mills. It is one of the most progres¬ 
sive cities in the country, and, like other 
Southern cities, is a busy center. 

If we recall the roughness 
of the plateau west of the 
Appalachians, we can under- 

3. Nashville, stand the reason 
Knoxville, and for the location 
Chattanooga of CHATTA¬ 
NOOGA. It is on the Ten¬ 
nessee River (Fig. 120), at a 
point which makes it a gate¬ 
way somewhat like Atlanta. 

There is much manufacturing 
here, especially of articles 
made of iron and wood. 

Another busy manufacturing 
city, near by, is Knoxville, 
which is not quite so large 
as Chattanooga. 

Nashville, the capital of 
Tennessee, has sawmills, fur¬ 
niture factories, and flour 
mills. There are more than six hundred 
factories in this city. Being in the midst 
of a splendid farming country, it is a dis¬ 


tributing point for supplies to the sur¬ 
rounding towns and farms. It is also one 
of the educational centers of the South, 
having Vanderbilt University, 
Fisk University for Colored 
Students, George Peabody 
College for Teachers, and 
other important schools. 
There are several other well- 
known universities in the 
South, and each state supports 
a state university. 

The coast cities are chiefly 
engaged in shipping cotton 
and lumber, and 4 Seaport3 
most of them east of the 
are located near Mississippi 

the mouths of rivers, so that 
these goods may be brought 
to them by water as well as 
by rail. In them, also, there 
is important manufacturing, especially of 
cotton goods and lumber. Two of the 
best-known seaports are Charleston and 
Savannah, both long noted as shipping 


points for cotton (Fig. 121), lumber, and 
other goods. Charleston is a leading 
lumber port of the South. Mobile, on 


Fig. 120. — Moccasin Bend in the Tennessee River, as seen from Lookout 
Mountain. Chattanooga is situated on the river bank just to the right of 
the middle of the picture. 


Copyright by Detroit Photographic Co. 

Fig. 121. — Thousands of bales of cotton on one of the wharves at Savannah, 

ready for shipment. 










100 


NORTH AH ERICA 



Mobile Bay, is another important Southern 
port. 

Iu Florida are Tampa and Pensacola, 
both with excellent harbors, and both rap¬ 
idly growing. Besides its cigar manufac¬ 
turing (p. 95), Tampa has a growing trade 
with the West Indies. It is the terminus 
of important railways, and is the nearest 
port in the country to the Panama Canal. 
Owinsr to the canal the trade of both Pensa- 
cola and Tampa has already 
greatly increased. 

Since so much cotton is 
shipped away, there has been 

5. other cities need of a lar 8' e 
of the Missis- number of sliip- 
sippi Valley ping points. 

Therefore, besides the cities 
already named, most of which 
are extensively engaged in 
cotton shipping, we find the 
cotton ports of Vicksburg, 

Natchez, and Baton Rouge, 
on the Mississippi, and 
Shreveport and Little 
Rock on tributaries to that 
river. 

Texas is the largest state in 
the Union. It is even larger 

6. Cities in than a11 the 

Texas thirteen states 

(1) Size of this included in New England and 

the Middle Atlantic States, 
and has a greater area than either France 
or Germany. At one time it was a separate 
country, having won its independence from 
Mexico in 1836. But it desired later to 
enter our Union, and was admitted as a 
state in 1845. 

Throughout the arid western section 
there are no cities and few large towns, 

(2) Smallness except in the extreme western 

of the popuia- corner on the Rio Grande, 
tioninthewest where El p AS0 ig located . 

The Spanish word “ El Paso ” means “ the 
pass,” for this city is situated at a pass in 
the Rocky Mountains, through which the 
Southern Pacific Railway extends westward, 


while an important line reaches southward 
into Mexico. Much of the land along the 
Rio Grande and Pecos rivers, and some 
other streams, is irrigated ; but in most of 
the western part of Texas the chief indus¬ 
try is cattle raising, in which Texas is the 
leading state of the Union. 

East of the arid and semiarid plateau, 
most of the crops of the Southern States 
grow in great abundance. Rice and sugar 


Fig. 122. — The Alamo, at San Antonio — an old Spanish church, famous 

in the history of Texas. 


cane flourish on the Coastal (3) Resources in 
Plain, and forests are exten- the east, and the 
sive. On the higher plains, cities there 
just west of these lowlands, the warm cli¬ 
mate and fertile soil are especially favorable 
to cotton. Texas leads all the states in the 
production of this valuable crop. What 
important minerals are found in Texas, and 
in what parts of the state. 

Naturally, since so many raw materials 
are produced in the eastern half of this 
state, large cities are located there. Two of 
them are Dallas and Fort Worth — both 
shipping points, the former for cotton, the 
latter for cattle from the plains of the 
West. Dallas is also a busy manufacturing 
center. Austin, the capital, is on the Col- 


* 









THE UNITED STATES 


101 




orado River, and San Antonio, where the 
historic Alamo (Fig. 122) is located, lies 
farther southwest. 

Two other important cities are Houston, 
near the coast, and Galveston, the princi¬ 
pal seaport west of New Orleans. Immense 
quantities of cotton and other products are 


Fig. 123. — A view of Oklahoma City as it appeared April 22, 1889. Compare this 


with Figure 124. 


shipped from Galveston. It is also a port 
of outlet for goods from the Far West. 
Railroads from the north and west cross 
Texas to Galveston and other Gulf ports ; 
and railway lines likewise cross the state to 
Mexico and California. 

No one of the cities of Texas is yet of 
great size, since manufacturing is not ex¬ 
tensively developed. 

But here, as in the other 
Southern States, there 
is much recent advance 
in manufacturing:. 

All of our states, ex¬ 
cept the thirteen orig¬ 
inal states, were once 
territories, occupied by 
7. Oklahoma Indians. 

(1) its history As they be¬ 
came settled they were, 
one by one, admitted to 
the Union as states. One of the last states 
to be admitted Was Oklahoma, and it is 
therefore of special interest. Not many 
years ago Oklahoma was occupied by Indians 
alone. As the red men in various parts of 
our country were conquered, and the land 
that they occupied became needed by white 


men, the Indians were placed on lands re¬ 
served for them in different places. These 
reserved sections were called Indian reser¬ 
vations^ and at one time nearly all the area 
at present included in the state of Okla¬ 
homa was given over to the Indians. It 
was then called Indian Territory. 

As onr country be¬ 
came more and more 
settled, and it was found 
that the Indian Terri¬ 
tory had great resources, 
the white men desired 
this land also. One 
strong reason for taking 
it from the Indians was 
that they did so little 
to develop it. Accord¬ 
ingly, in 1890, the west¬ 
ern part of the Indian 
Territory was thrown open to white settlers, 
and called Oklahoma. People rushed in 
there, by thousands, to secure the free 
farms that the government offered, and 
the region was rapidly settled (Figs. 123 
and 124). Then people asked that the two 
divisions, the Territory of Oklahoma in 
the west and Indian Territory in the east, 


Fig. 124. — A view of a part of Oklahoma City in 1908. Compare this with Figure 
123. Almost as striking growth would be shown by a photograph taken ten 
years later. 


be admitted into our Union as one state. 
This was granted, and in 1907 the new 
state was admitted under the name of 
Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma, like Texas, is largely a plain ; 
but in the east there are low, 
forest-covered mountains, con- 


(2) Its resources 










102 


NORTH AMERICA 


taining coal, iron, and other valuable min¬ 
erals. In the extreme west the climate is 
more arid, and grazing is the leading in¬ 
dustry ; but in most of the state the plains 
are splendidly fitted for agriculture. Many 
farm crops are produced, the leading ones 
being corn and other grains in the north, 
and cotton in the south. 

Although the state is so new, there has 
already been great development of agricul¬ 
ture, lumbering, and mining, 
(3 ) Chief cities ’ , . 

and no doubt there will be 

much greater advance in the next few years. 
The progress in manufacturing is indicated 
by the number and size of cities and towns 
that have already sprung up. The largest 
is the capital, Oklahoma City, but Tulsa, 
Muskogee, Shawnee, Chickasha, and 
Guthrie are also large and growing cities. 

1 . How are the surface features of the northeast¬ 
ern portion of these states similar to those farther 
. north? 2 . To what extent is the 

eview surface of the Southern States level ? 

yues ions 3 What mountains are found there, 

besides the Appalachians ? 4. What is the character 
of the coast? 5. Describe the climate. 6 . What 
is the rank of the South in the lumbering industry? 
7. Name the kinds of trees found there, and tell how 
the lumbering is carried on. 8 . What about fish¬ 
ing? 9. To what extent is agriculture important ? 
10. Why was slave labor needed on the cotton 
plantations? 11. Tell about the amount of cotton 
produced, and the climate it requires. 12 . How 
is the cotton raised and marketed? 13. What 
plants produce sugar? 14. Where is sugar cane 
grown, and how is it cultivated ? 15. How is sugar 

obtained from the cane? 16. What about the im¬ 
portance of rice as a food? Why may we expect 
that more will be raised in the future ? 17. How 

is it cultivated and prepared for market? 18. Where 

is tobacco produced in the South ? 19. What can 

you tell about fruit and vegetable raising here? 
20 . What other farm products are raised? 21 . Where 
is ranching important ? Why? 2.2. Where are coal 
and iron ore found? 23. Oil and gas ? 24. What 
about building stones and clays in the South ? 
25. Phosphates? 26. What other mineral products 
are important ? 27. How has manufacturing in the 
South advanced since the Civil War? 28. What goods 
are manufactured from products of the forests?. 29. 
Name the principal cities engaged in that work. 30. 
What cities lead in the manufacture of iron and steel 
goods? 31. What is the extent of cotton manu¬ 


facturing? 32. Name the chief cotton manufac¬ 
turing cities. 33. Explain the value of the cotton 
gin. 34. Of what value are the cotton seeds? 
35. What other manufacturing is carried on in the 
South? 36. What conveniences has the South for the 
transportation of goods? 37. Tell about the size and 
location of New Orleans. 38. What connections 
by water and rail has it with the interior of our 
continent? 39. What difficulties are caused by the 
Mississippi River? 40. Tell about the people in 
New Orleans. What about the climate there ? 
41. State the important facts about Memphis and 
Atlanta. 42. About Nashville, Knoxville, and 
Chattanooga. 43. Locate and give the principal 
facts about the coast cities east of the Mississippi; 
other cities of the Mississippi Valley. 44. What 
about the size of Texas ? 45. Why is the population 
so small in the western part? 46. What are the 
resources in its eastern part, and the chief cities 
there? 47. Give a brief history of Oklahoma. 
48. What are its resources? 49. Name and locate 
its chief cities. 

North Carolina (N.C.). 1. Which part is moun¬ 

tainous? Name and locate the highest peak east of 
the Mississippi River. 2. What are 
the surface features of this state? 3. evle '* r 
Which cities are mentioned in this tl0ns by States 
text? Where is each? For what is each important ? 
4. What capes do you find on the coast? 5. What 
are the leading industries? (See Figs. 249 to 278.) 
6 . Draw an outline map of this state, like that of 
Maine. Do the same later for each of the other 
states. 

Tennessee (Tenn.). 7. Where are the mountains ? 
The plains? 8 . Name tw'O cities among the moun¬ 
tains. For what is each important ? 9. State facts 
about two other cities in Tennessee. 10. Which 
city is the largest ? (See table, Appendix, p. 454.) 
11 . What large rivers drain the state? 12 . What 
are the leading industries in this state? 

South Carolina (S.C.). 13. Describe the surface 

features of the state. 14. What are the principal 
industries? 15. What city is on the Fall Line? 
On the seacoast? For what is each important? 
16. Which city is largest? 

Georgia (Ga.). 17. Where are the mountains? 
18. The plains? 19. What are the industries? 
20. Trace the Fall Line across the state (Fig. 66 ). 
What cities are on it? 21. Why is Atlanta situated 
where it is? 22 . How does it compare in size with 
the largest city in each of the three states just men¬ 
tioned? 23. How does it compare in size with New 
Orleans, Buffalo, and Providence? 24. Name the 
two seaports. What do they ship? 

Florida (Fla.). 25. What about the relief of 

this state? 26. Explain the irregular southern 
coast and the Florida Keys. 27. Describe the 
climate. How does this influence the crops? 




THE UNITED STATES 


103 


28. What Florida cities are mentioned, .and how is 
each important? Locate each. 29. What mineral 
product comes from Florida? 

Alabama (Ala.). 30. Trace the Fall Line across 

this state. What cities are situated on it? 

31. Where is Mobile? How is it important? 

32. Describe the location and industries of Bir¬ 
mingham. 33. What crops are raised in Alabama? 
34. What cities are engaged in manufacturing 
cotton? 35. In lumber manufacturing? 36. Com¬ 
pare Mobile in size with Atlanta and Birmingham. 

Mississippi (Miss.). 37. Why is there no city on 
the coast? 38. In what way can the products of the 
state be shipped by water? 39. From what cities? 
40. What are the products? 41. Why no mining? 
42. What about the extent of cotton raising in this 
state (Figs. 253, 254) ? 

Louisiana (La.). 43. State the reasons for the 

great importance of New Orleans. 44. Why has 
it a better location than Mobile or Charleston? 
45. Compare it in size with those cities. 46. With 
Boston and Baltimore. 47. What large tributary 
enters the Mississippi in Louisiana ? 48. What 
crops are raised in Louisiana? Why there? 49. Tell 
how the delta is caused to grow (p. 10). 

Arkansas (Ark.). 50. What large river enters 

the Mississippi in this state? 51. There is much 
forest in Arkansas; what kinds (Fig. 266)? 52. Is 
Arkansas in the cotton belt? (See Fig. 253.) 
53. The capital is the largest city. Compare it in 
size with Memphis. Why is it less favorably situ¬ 
ated than that city? 

Texas (Tex.). 54. Where are the mountains? 

55. Where are the forests ? Why there? 56. What 
are the industries on the western plains? 57. What 
city lies in the western part? Why there? 

58. What are the industries in eastern Texas? 

59. What cities are in eastern Texas? 60. For 
what is Galveston noted? 61. Compare it in size 
with New Orleans and Charleston. 62. Texas is 
how many times as large as Rhode Island? (For 
area, see table in Appendix, p. 453.) As Pennsyl¬ 
vania? 63. Add together the areas of all the New 
England and Middle Atlantic States, and compare 
the total with the area of Texas. 64. Compare 
the population of Texas with that of Massachusetts. 
(See Appendix, p. 453.) 

Oklahoma (Okla.). 65. What has been the history 
of this state ? 66. What about the climate of the 

western part? 67. What crops are raised in the 
northern part? In the southern part? 68. Into 
what river does the state drain? 69. Name and 
locate the chief cities. 

70. Which is the smallest of the Southern States? 

71. Compare it with Pennsylvania 
General Review an( j Massachusetts in size. 72. State 
Questions the principal industries of the South. 

73. Of what advantage is it that they are so dif¬ 


ferent from those of the North? 74. Name the 
principal cities on the Fall Line, and explain the im¬ 
portance of each. 

1. Show several ways in which New England and 
the Southern States are dependent on each other. 
2. What effect did our Civil War 
have on the cotton manufacturing of u 2S es lons 
England? 3. Near what places were some of the 
great battles of the war fought? 4. What other in¬ 
ventions may well be compared with the cotton gin 
in importance ? 5. About how much sugar does 
your family use each year? 6. What reasons can 
you give for expecting the cotton mills in New Eng¬ 
land to prove less profitable, now that the South is 
developing such mills? 7. Find out how much 
nearer it is from Chicago to the Panama Canal by 
way of New Orleans than by way of New York. 
What effect will this probably have on New Orleans ? 
8 . Through what waters would a boat go from New 
Orleans to Kansas City? To Pittsburgh? To 
Chicago? To San Francisco? 9. Make a drawing 
of these states, including the principal rivers and 
cities. Locate the capitals. 

5 . Central States 

1. Name the large rivers of this group. 2. Draw 
a sketch map showing them. 3. Into what ocean 
does the Red River of the North „ 
flow? 4. Sketch the five Great U ^ 

Lakes. 5. Locate upon each of these sketches the 
cities printed in large type. 6. Are any of the very 
large cities in these states not situated on rivers or 
lakes? 7. How far did the glacier advance in these 
states (Fig. 18)? 8. In what ways must the Great 
Lakes have influenced the development of this re¬ 
gion? 9. Where are mountains found in these 
states? 10. What does the fact that there are so 
many rivers tell about the rainfall? 

A little over a hundred years ago, when 
the pioneers had pushed across the Appala¬ 
chian Mountains into Ohio and surface 
Kentucky, they were gladdened features 
by the sight of immense tracts 1 . Extent of 
of level land (Fig. 127). For level land 
hundreds of miles the plains slope gently 
toward the Mississippi; and beyond that 
river, they slowly rise again, for hundreds 
of miles, to the very base of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

In western South Dakota and in southern 
Missouri, low mountains rise above the 
plains. There is a hilly region around the 
western end of Lake Superior, in Michigan, 





CENTRAL STATES 



<M 


0 

HH 

-h 






















































THE UNITED STATES 


105 


Wisconsin, and Minnesota; and in eastern 
Ohio and Kentucky there is also hilly land, 
for the Appalachian Plateau extends into 
these states. With the exception of these 
small areas of mountains and hilly lands, 
most of the region is a vast level tract, quite 


remove the trees from a single acre, and to 
drag away or bury the bowlders. On the 
prairies (p. 23) of the Central States, how¬ 
ever, such labor was unnecessary, for there 
were hundreds of thousands of square miles 
covered with grass (Fig. 127). 



CENTRAL ST/AT-e: 

Modeled by Edwin E. Howell. 




\ ^ V 

■ y 

I X ^-_ | 

LV 

_ A-/ 


j 


V ^ 






ujJl) 


Fig. 126. — Relief map of tbe Central States. 


unlike the hilly and mountainous country 
farther east. What are the names of the 
mountains of the Central States? 

The hearts of the pioneers were gladdened 
not only because the land was level, but be- 

2. Absence of caUse a lar g e P art ° f ifc waS 
trees and free from forests and bowlders. 

bowlders J n many sections of New Eng¬ 

land weeks of hard labor were required to 


Being so far from the coast, this region is 

not influenced by sea breezes, as are some 

of our states. Florida, for 

, , . , Climate 

example, being nearly sur- , 

p ° J 1. The tempera- 

rounded by water, receives turei w ith rea- 

breezes from the ocean that sons for the 

greatly temper the heat of extremes 

summer. Similar breezes greatly temper 

the cold in winter, for the ocean does not 












106 


NORTH AMERICA 


become so cold as the land. Thus water 
makes the temperatures of the two seasons 
more nearly equal, or equalizes it. For that 
reason such a climate is said to be equable. 

Because the Central States are so far 
from the ocean, the summers are very 
warm, while the winters are very cold. It 
is often as hot there in summer as it is in 
the Southern States; but in winter the 
coldest part of our country is in North 
Dakota and Minnesota. Such a climate, 
with hot summers and cold winters, is com¬ 
mon in the interior of continents and is, 
therefore, called a continental climate. It 


have ample rain for farming, as is indicated 
by their many rivers. This rain is brought 
from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic 
Ocean, by the winds which every few days 
blow from the south and east. 

From eastern Ohio to western Nebraska, 
and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of 
Mexico, agriculture is a very Agriculture 
important industry. Indeed, east of the 
millions of persons in Europe arid lands 
and in our coast cities look to l- itsimpor- 
the Mississippi Valley for their tance 
bread, meat, and other food, as they look to 
the South for cotton. 



Fig. 127. — A view on the rolling country of the Blue Grass Region. For hundreds of miles there is just such 

beautiful country as this. 


is also said to be extreme , in distinction 
from a climate that is equable. 

The Great Lakes are such large bodies 
of water that they influence the climate 
near them much as the ocean does, only to 
a less degree. Thus the climate is cooler 
in summer, and warmer in winter, along the 
shores of the lakes, than at a distance from 
them. 

Since these states are so far from the ocean 
one might suppose that they would receive 
2 xhe fail of little rain. This is true of the 
rain, with western part of Kansas, Ne- 
reason braska, and the two Dakotas, 

where the climate is arid. The reason for 
this arid climate has already been stated 
(p. 11). With the exception of the 
western border, however, the Central States 


The farms vary greatly in size, from a 
few acres to several thousand, but the 
majority contain from 80 to 2 Afarmin 
160 acres. In the main, they central Ohio 
resemble the one in Ohio that ( i) The house 
is here described. On this anditssur- 
Ohio farm of 160 acres, is a roundin 9 s 
house in which the family lives, with a barn 
near by for horses, milch cows, and ha\', 
and with sheds near it for storing grain and 
farming implements. 

A windmill at the rear of the house 
keeps the milk house well supplied with 
cold water, and also fills the water troughs 
in the barnyard. Near the house is an 
orchard (Fig. 129) of apple, peach, and pear 
trees, with a few rows of berry bushes in one 
part, and a chicken house in another (Fig. 








THE UNITED ST A TES 


107 




128). Here enough chickens are raised to 
supply some meat, and all the eggs that are 
needed, with some to sell. On one side of 
the front yard are a few beehives, and back 
of them, between the orchard 
and the barn, is a garden of 
vegetables. Still back of 
that are several pigpens, in 
which hogs are fattened for 
borne use, and also for the 
market. 

Farther away from the 
house are fields in which there 
are at least three 
or four different 
kinds of crops. 

Every farmer in 
that vicinity expects to raise 
corn,—perhaps sixty acres 
of it, — some grass for graz¬ 
ing and for hay, and wheat 
or some other kind of grain. 

After these crops are harvested, they are 
either sold or-fed to stock — horses, cattle, 
hogs, or sheep—upon the farm. The lat¬ 
ter plan is often followed, chiefly because it 


the farm, which not only supply the family 
with fresh milk and butter, but furnish some 
cream or butter to sell. 

Since there are usually only a few houses 


(2) The fields, 
and what is 
done with their 
crops 


Fig. 129. — A farmer and his family in the orchard near the house. 


pays better to fatten stock and sell it, than 
to sell the crops themselves. I here are 
generally two or three good milch cows on 


Fig. 128. — A farmer feeding his chickens and turkeys. 


in sight of a farmhouse, and no store or post 
office within a number of miles, (3) contact with 
the farmer and his family may neighbors 
not meet with other persons for several 
days at a time, although they 
often see friends driving by. 
In the busiest season, from 
spring till fall, they make 
few trips to town. How¬ 
ever, they have a telephone 
by which they can talk with 
neighbors, and with friends 
and merchants in town, while 
the postman brings the mail 
to their doors. 

Some persons would not 
care for such a life as this, 
because it is too (4) Attractions 
lonesome, and of such a life 
there is too much hard work 
connected with it. But this 
farmer enjoys it greatly, be¬ 
cause he likes to take care of 
his stock, to work in the soil, and to watch 
his crops grow. In addition, he is able to 
raise most of his own food, and his whole 








108 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 130. — A farmer cutting and binding wheat in the harvest season 



reach a height of from seven to ten feet (Fig. 132). 
In order to keep the soil loose, and kill the weeds, 
the ground between the rows is 
plowed when the corn is young; ^ ^ ow ^ * s 
but as it grows higher, the shade of 


its leaves 
soil from 
A corn- 


3. Indian corn, 
or maize 

(1) Extent to 
ichich it is 
raised 


life is more independent than that of 
persons in a town or city. 

Some of our greatest men have come 
from farms. Can you name two Presidents 
who spent their childhood on farms of the 
Central States ? Where were their homes? 

What can you tell about their early life ? 

Corn (Fig. 181) is raised in most 
of the states of the Union, and you 
have already learned how 
important it is in the 
South. It is in the 
Central States, however, 
that we find the 
greatest amount. The corn belt of 
the country (Fig. 249) extends 
from Ohio to central Kansas and 
Nebraska, with smaller quan¬ 
tities raised to the north, south, 
east, and west of it. 

Farmers within this belt 
usually expect to devote 
from one third to one 
half of their land to 
corn ; therefore, in 
traveling across 

these states in sum- w" r *'jp 

mer, one sees corn- 

fiphU in pvprv dirpp- FlG " 131 -~ Two ears of corn, the one on the left with the 
•> ~ husk turned down to show the kernels of corn on the cob. 

tion. 

The seed is planted in rows in the springtime. raised is fed to cattle 
Soon the little stalks appear above ground, growing hogs, as already stated, 
rapidly during the hot summer months, until they 


cultivated and 
harvested 


protects the 
both drought and weeds, 
field usually presents the most 
beautiful appearance in 
July, when the corn “ tas¬ 
sels out ,f (Fig. 132). The 
plants then entirely hide 
the ground from view, 
and the rich green stalks, 
with their long, slender 
leaves, bend to the breezes 
in the most graceful 
manner. 

If the stalk is to be 
used as fodder for cattle 
in winter, it is cut before 
frost, when the kernels on 
the cob are still some¬ 
what soft and milky. If 
left until after frost, the 
grain hardens, and then 
the harvest season begins. 
Men drive into the fields 
in wagons and tear the 
husks from the ear, spend¬ 
ing day after day at that 
kind of w r ork. 


Corn is 
many uses 
is 

(3) Its uses 


put to 
Much 


that is 
and 

Some is made 
into hominy and breakfast foods, or into 











THE UNITED ST A TES 


100 



corn meal. Starch is another product, and 
a very extensive use of the grain is in 
the manufacture of whisky in distilleries. 
There are many distilleries in St. Louis 
and other cities within the corn belt. 
Peoria, in central Illinois, is 
another great center for dis¬ 
tilleries. 

Wheat, like corn, is produced 
in all the Central States, as well 
4. Wheat as i n other parts 
(l) Extent Of of the country 
its production (Fig. 251). It is 

an especially important product 
in Kansas, Nebraska, and Indi¬ 
ana ; but the section which at 
present is most noted for wheat 
is the valley of the Red River of 
the North (Fig. 133). In this 
valley there is a broad, level 
plain, including western Min¬ 
nesota, eastern North and South 
Dakota, and a portion of Mani¬ 
toba, which is one of the finest 
wheat regions in the world. 


which was larger than all the Great Lakes put to¬ 
gether. When the ice melted away entirely from 
the valley, the Red River w 7 as once more able to flow 
northward, and then the great lake disappeared. 
The soil of the wheat region is the sediment that 
was deposited on the bottom of this ancient lake. 


Fig. 132. — View in a cornfield in Nebraska. Notice how very tall the 
corn grows in this fertile soil. 


One of the reasons for the fertility of this section 
dates back to the time when the Great Glacier w T as 
melting away. The ice then 

(2) Why exten¬ 
sively grown in 
the Red River 
Valley 


that direction, 
southward. A 


away. I he ice 
stretched across the valley of the 
Red River, which flows northward 
into the Arctic. This ice dam pre¬ 
vented the river from flowing in 
and forced it to seek an outlet 
broad lake was thus formed, 


The land here is almost as level as the surface of 
the sea; it is so level, in fact, that after a rain the 
water stands in sheets on the fields. It is necessary 
to elevate the roads a foot or more above the sur¬ 
rounding land and to make ditches on either side; 
otherwise the roads would be muddy much of the 
time. In every direction there is nothing to break 
the view except a farmhouse every half mile or so, 
with a few trees around it. Over this open plain 













110 


NORTH AMERICA 


the wind sweeps with terrific force, somewhat as 
upon the ocean: and in winter fierce, blinding snow 
squalls, or blizzards, are not uncommon. 

Upon this plain one may ride on the 
train northward toward Winnipeg all day 
(3) now cum - lon g’ and see scarcely a single 
voted on a large crop besides wheat. Most of 
f arm the farms are of moderate size, 

but some are enormous. For example, one 
farm in North Dakota contains over thirty 
thousand acres. How many square miles 
is that ? 


On these large farms a particularly valuable help 
to the farmer is the modern farm tractor (Fig. 133). 
This machine burns gasoline or other forms of petro¬ 
leum, is very strongly built, and takes the place of 
many men and horses in hauling heavy loads and 
performing difficult tasks. With it a dozen plows 
can be pulled at once; plowing and harrowing can 
be performed in one operation; or the engine may 
be used to pump water or to saw wood. Some of 
them have high wheels; but many creep along over 
the roughest ground with “ caterpillar ” tread like 
the mighty army “ tanks.” 

The great quantity of wheat produced in 
the Red River Valley and the neighboring 
(4) Influence Of region lias helped in the growth 
reheat on of the cities of Minneapolis, 
growth of cities p AUL? and DULUTH. It 

has also caused the growth of cities in the 
midst of the wheat fields, like Fargo in 
North Dakota and Sioux Falls in South 
Dakota. Since most of the grain is shipped 
to the East or South, it has influenced the 
growth of scores of other cities along the 
Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and 
even on the Atlantic coast. State how this 
can be. 

While each farm in the Central States 
usually has a small orchard, like that on the 
Ohio farm, fruit raising is a special industry 
5. Fruits and in those sections where the cli- 
vegetabies mate and soil are favorable, as 
(1) Frmts i n the neighborhood of the 
Great Lakes. You have already learned 
that the immense area of water in these 
lakes, which do not freeze over in winter, 
renders the summers cooler, and the winters 
warmer, than they would otherwise be. 


(2) Vegetables 


This is why the grape belt of western New 
York (p. 63) extends westward along the 
shores of Lake Erie far into Ohio. 

The Michigan peninsula, which has Lake 
Michigan on the west, and Lakes Huron 
and Erie on the east, is also a noted fruit¬ 
raising region. Here great quantities of 
peaches, apples, and other fruits are pro¬ 
duced. With what part of the Atlantic 
coast can this fruit region be best compared 
(p. 63)? 

While these regions are especially noted, 
the raising of fruits is common in all the 
Central States. Among the kinds raised 
are peaches, grapes, apples, cherries, plums, 
and berries. 

Vegetables of many kinds, such as sweet 
corn, potatoes, turnips, beets, cabbages, 
tomatoes, peas, beans, lettuce, 
pumpkins, squashes, and celery 
are also raised in all of the Central States. 
Some of these are grown for use at home, 
some for canneries, and some for sale in the 
cities. The fact that there are so many 
cities makes truck farming profitable in 
their neighborhood, as is the case in New 
England. 

Tobacco is another valuable farm product 
in the Central States (Fig. 256). While 
it is raised in many sections, 
the greatest quantity comes 
from Kentucky and Ohio, which rank with 
Virginia (p. 62), North Carolina, and Ten¬ 
nessee (p. 89) as leading tobacco states. 
Both Louisville and St. Louis are impor¬ 
tant tobacco markets. What other cities 
have the same industry (pp. 62 and 89) ? 

Some domestic animals are raised on al¬ 
most every farm. Among these the most 

important are horses, cattle, „ ^ 

. 1 ■ , ill 7. Domestic 

sheep, hogs, hens, and turkeys, animals 

Some farms, however, are (i) Principal 

mainly devoted to one or a few kinds, and their 

kinds (Fig. 134). For exam- distrihution 

pie, in the more hilly sections, where it is not 

easy to cultivate grain, cattle and sheep are 

numerous, and dairying is important. Ohio 

is one of the foremost sheep raising states. 



THE UNITED ST A TES 


111 



More horses are raised in Iowa than in any 
other state in the Union, more hogs in Iowa 
than in any other state, and more milch cows 
than in any other state except New York. 

Kentucky is famous for its line stock, 
especially horses and mules, 
raised in the “ Blue 
Grass Region” 
about Lexington. 

The grass here 
has a bluish color, 
and is very nourishing, mak¬ 
ing possible the raising of line 
stock. 


obtain the malt which is needed in making 
beer. In Cincinnati, St. Louis, and 
Milwaukee, beer making is one of the 
important industries. 

Another farm crop in some sections is 


(2) The Blue 
Grass Region 
of Kentucky; 
its fine stock 
and its caverns 


The reason why this grass is so 
nourishing is that the soil in this 
section is made of bits of decayed 
limestone in which there is lime 
phosphate, an excellent plant food 
(p. 92). This phosphate comes 
from the shells of small animals 
which lived in the sea that covered 
this region millions of years ago 
(p. 10). On dying, they helped to 
make a deposit of sediment on the sea 
bottom; and this sediment has since 
changed to limestone rock, which is 
now raised above the sea. As the 
limestone decays, the phosphate mixes 
with other rock bits, and thus fertilizes 
the soil. 

The abundance of limestone in this 
part of Kentucky is the reason for 
the numerous caves that exist there 
(Fig. 135). These caves are long 
tunnels that have been slowly eaten 
out by water that percolates through 
the rock, dissolving the limestone. 

The largest of all is the Mammoth Care , which is 
said to have more than one hundred and fifty miles 
of tunnels, or galleries. They wind about in an 
irregular manner, some being many feet below 
others, and all together forming a network, or 
labyrinth, into which a stranger dares not venture 
without a guide. 


Great quantities of oats and barley are 
raised in the Central States. The former 
8. other farm is a common food for horses, 
products but the latter is largely used 

in the manufacture of beer. The great 
breweries, found in every large city, con¬ 
sume immense quantities of barley in order to 


Fig. 1134. — A scene on a chicken farm in Southern Missouri. 

hundreds of chickens on this farm. 


There are 


a 


making 


flax. From the bark of the flax stem 
fiber is obtained which is used in 
linen, while linseed oil is made from the 
flax seed. Hops, used with barley in mak¬ 
ing beer, are also raised ; and r}m and 
buckwheat are produced on many farms. 
Sugar beets are now cultivated in many 
states, and they supply a part of the sugar 
consumed in the country. 

Finally, a vast amount of hay is grown ; 
some of it is fed to farm animals, but much 
is sold in the cities for the use of the 
horses there. The hay crop is one of the 
most valuable in the Central States. 






112 


NORTH AMERICA 



water comes from the rock layers under¬ 
ground, and by its help much land is now 
cultivated which a few years ago was of 
little use. 

Every year the amount of land cultivated in this 
section is increasing; and now that the government 
is building reservoirs to store the waters that 
otherwise run off through the rivers in spring, there 
will be still more land under irrigation. These 
irrigated farms produce the same crops as other 
parts of the Central States. Crops that will grow 
in a dry climate are also being introduced (called 
“dry farming”), and this is another reason why 
farming is increasing here. 



Fig. 135.— A view in one of the Kentucky caves. The 
icicle-like points hanging from the roof (stalac¬ 
tites) and the columns extending upward from the 
cave door (stalagmites) are made by the deposit 
of limy matter that the water brings in solution 
as it percolates through the limestone of the cave 
roof. 


Passing westward from the fertile valley 

of the Red River of the North, one finds 

. . ., . the farmhouses decreasing in 

Agriculture in ® 

the arid section number, and the country 

1. Meaning and becoming more and more 
extent of the arid, until, finally, in western 
Great Plains North Dakota, there is very 

little farming without irrigation. At the 
same time, the plains gradually rise higher 
and higher, until, near the base 
of the Rocky Mountains, an 
elevation of folly a mile above 
the sea is reached. This arid 
plateau, extending from Canada 
to southwestern Texas (p. 84), 
is commonly known as the 
<Treat Plains. 

The soil is excellent, and 
where irrigation is possible, 

2. Irrigated sec- there are fine 

tions, and their farms. In many 
products places the streams 

furnish water for irrigation ; in 
others, water rises to the sur¬ 
face when wells are driven into 
the earth. Such wells, from 
which the water often gushes 
forth as in a fountain, are called 
artesian wells (Fig. 130). The 


Still, most of the arid region of the Great 
Plains is unsuited to farming. For that 
reason there are comparatively 3. Ranching 
few large cities, as you can (l) its extent 
see on the map (Fig. 125). The entire 
western third of North and South Dakota, 
Nebraska, and Kansas, as well as the Great 
Plains farther west, are given over mainly 
to ranching (Fig. 137). 

This industry is carried on in much the 
same way throughout all parts 
of the arid West. In western (2) Location of 
North Dakota, for instance, houseandcor . 
there is little water except rats 


An artesian well supplying water for use in irrigation in 
western United States. 










THE UNITED STATES 


113 


in the widely separated streams, and 
there are very few trees except along 
the stream banks. Since the ranchman 
must have both water and wood, lie locates 
his house, sheds, and stockades, 
or corrals (big. 138), within 
easy reach of these two things. 

If there is no neighbor within 
several miles, it is all the better, 
for his cattle are then more 
certain to find abundant grass. 

Few fences are built, partly 
because most of the region is 
(3) Whijfew owned by the gov- 

/ e,lces eminent, not by 

ranchmen. Very often they 

own only the land near the 
water ; but this gives them con¬ 
trol of the surrounding land, 
for it is of no use to any one 
else if his cattle cannot reach 
the water. Another reason 
why fences are not common is 
that it is necessary for the cattle to roam 
far and wide in their search for food. 
The bunch grass, upon which they feed, 
is so scattered that they must walk a 
long distance each day to find enough 


sometimes they stray one or two hundred 
miles away. 

Twice a year there is a general collection, 
or round-up (Fig. 139), of cattle, — the 


.. 





Fig. 137. — Cowboys and cattle on a ranch in western United States. 


first round-up occurring in May or June, 

and the other early in the ^ 0hj( , c( of 

fall. One object of the first is first round-up, 

to brand the calves that have andhowaccom- 
i i i , . , plishod 

been born during the winter. 


to eat. 

A single ranchman may own from ten 
to twenty thousand head of cattle, and yet 


they may all be allowed to wander about 
upon public land, called “the range” (Fig. 
137). Usually they keep within a distance 
of thirty miles of the ranch-house; but 


Since there are few fences, cattle belonging to 
ranches which are even a hundred miles apart be¬ 
come mixed during the winter; and those in a large 
herd may belong to a score of dif¬ 
ferent ranchmen. Each cattle 
owner has a certain mark, or 
brand (Fig. 140), in the form of 
a letter, a cross, a horseshoe, etc., 
which is burnt into the side of 
every calf. 

A round-up, which lasts several 
weeks, is planned by a number of 
ranchmen together. A squad of 
perhaps twenty cowboys, with a 
wagon and provisions, a large num¬ 
ber of riding horses, or “ponies,” 
and a cook, go in one direction; 
and other wagons, with similar 
“ outfits,” set out in other direc¬ 
tions. Before separating in the morning, the 
members of a squad agree upon a certain camping 
place for the night, and they then scour the country 
to bring the cattle together, riding perhaps sixty or 
eighty miles during the day. 



Fig. 138. — Cattle in a corral on a western cattle ranch. 


















114 


■ NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 139. — A round-up on the Great Plains. All the cattle in the distance belong to one ranchman; 

those in the front of the picture to another. 



Each ranchman knows his own cattle by the brand 
they bear; and since the calves follow their mothers 
(Fig. 140), there is no difficulty in telling what brand 
shall be placed on them. After branding the calves, 
each ranchman drives his cattle homeward, to feed 
during the summer within a few dozen miles of their 
owner’s home. 

The second large round-up is similar to 
the first, except that its object is to bring 
(5) Second together the steers , or male 
round-up, and cattle, and ship them away to 
what follows market ; it is therefore called 
the beef round-up. A ranchman who owns 


Fig. 140. —This animal bears the brand of the owner. The cowboy is trying to catch the 
calf that is following its mother; and when he does he will place the same braud on it. 


collected, they are loaded upon trains and 
shipped to distant cities to be slaughtered 

(p. 122). 

Very often the cattle have found so little water, 
and such poor pasturage, that they have failed to 
fatten properly, and must be fed for a time before 
being slaughtered. This may be done upon the irri¬ 
gated fields near the rivers in the ranch country; 
or the cattle may be sent for this purpose to the 
farms farther east, as in Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and 
Nebraska. 

The lives of ranchmen and cowboys 
are interesting and often exciting, ^ ^ Rife of the 
most of each day being spent in the 

saddle (Fig. 141). 
They are so far sepa¬ 
rated from other 
people that they must 
depend upon them¬ 
selves far more than 
most people do. For 
instance, a ranchman 
must build his house, 
kill his beef and dress 
it, put up his ice, raise 
his vegetables, do his 
blacksmithing, find 
his fuel, and even keep 
school for hischildren 
if they are to receive 
an education. He af¬ 
fords a good example 
of the pioneer life 
which was so com¬ 
mon in early days. 


twenty thousand cattle may sell nearly half Although so much of the land is under 
that number in a season. As the steers are cultivation, or given over to ranching, forests 









THE UNITED STATES 


115 




Lumbering 

1. Extent of 
forest, and 
kinds of trees 


are found in many sections. In Wisconsin, 
for instance, in traveling northward from 
the well-cultivated southern 
portion, one comes to a section 
where farmers are beerinniner 
to take the place of lumber¬ 
men. Many log huts stand here in small 
clearings, with the green fields still dotted 
by tree stumps. But beyond, little else 
than woods can be seen. 

In these forests are many kinds of trees 
belonging to the north, especially the ever¬ 
greens, such as hemlock, spruce, white pine, 
and cedar. There are also some hard woods, 
such as oak, birch, and maple. 

Lumbering is still an important industry 
in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. 

It is carried on in much the 
same manner as in Maine 
(Fig. 142), although a great 
deal of the timber is brought to 
the sawmills by wagons or rail, instead of 
being floated a long distance downstream. 

The excellent water power in the Missis¬ 
sippi River, at Minneapolis (Fig. 158), 
early led to the building of sawmills there, 
and made that city famous for lumber. 


2 Method of 
lumbering, and 
centers for 
lumber 


Pig. 141. — A cowboy and his pony. The rope in his hand 
is his lariat, with which he lassoes the cattle. 

Since the Central States have no seacoast, all the 
oysters, cod, and other sea fish consumed in this sec¬ 
tion must be brought from the Pacific . 

coast, or from the Atlantic, or Gulf 1S ln ^ 
coasts. Thus, while the people of these states supply 
meat and grain for those living in other parts of the 
country, they, in turn, depend upon others for some 
of their food. 

The Central States, however,' are not entirely 
dependent upon the sea for 
their fish. In the rivers there 
are some excellent fish, quite 
different from those in the 
ocean ; and in the lakes there 
are still other kinds. There 
is, therefore, considerable 
fishing here, especially on 
the Great Lakes; but the 
fishing industry is by no 
means so important as in 
the groups of states already 
studied. 


Fig. 142. — Floating logs downstream to a sawmill in Wisconsin. 


Other mills are situated farther down the 
Mississippi, as at Winona. They are also 
numerous at Duluth, in Minnesota, and 
at Superior, which is just across the state 
line in Wisconsin. 


Coal is mined in al¬ 
most all the Central 
States. II- Mining 
linois pro- i. coal 
duces most, ranking next to (i) itsicide 
West Virginia among the states distribution 
of the country. Ohio produces almost as 
much, however, and large quantities come 
from Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, 










116 


NORTH AMERICA 



Missouri, and Michigan. There is so 
much coal in this section, and it is found 
throughout so large an area, that it is easy 
to obtain fuel for manufacturing in almost 
every part. 

While Pennsylvania produces two kinds 
of coal, anthracite and bituminous, the Cen- 

(2) Kind Of coal, tral States have onl y the latter 
and method of kind. But it is bituminous 
mining it coal that is used in making 

coke, and because there is so much of this 


kind of coal, it is of great value for iron 
manufacturing. In some places the coal 
beds lie near the surface, like rock in 
quarries, and then the mining is very sim¬ 
ple; in others it is buried so deep that long 
shafts must be sunk to reach it. 

When oil and natural gas were first dis- 
2. on and gas covered in New York and 
(1) Wherefound Pennsylvania, it was supposed 
that they did not exist elsewhere; but they 


have since been found in many places. 
Name some of them (pp. 66—91). Both oil 
and gas are found in several of the Central 
States, especially Illinois, Ohio, and Indi¬ 
ana. Many farmers, whose soil is no better 
than that of their neighbors, have suddenly 
become rich by the discovery of oil or 
natural gas in the rocks far beneath the 
surface (Fig. 143). In fact, these sub¬ 
stances are so abundant in some places that 
towns, like Findlay in western Ohio, have 
sprung up like mushrooms. 

The way in which gas 
and oil are formed, and the 
uses to which they are put, 
have already been described 

(p. 66). 

In many places in the 
Central States natural gas is 
in Common use, (2) Cheapness 
furnishing both Of gas as a fuel 
light and heat in the houses, 
and fuel in the factories. It 
is a very cheap fuel, for, after 
the hole is bored into the 
earth, it costs almost nothing 
to produce the gas. The 
main expense is the cost of 
the pipes through which it 
passes. 

Formerly Pennsylvania was 
the chief iron-producing state, 
having both coal 3 Iron ore 
and iron ore; (1) TheLake 
but some years Superior 
ago explorers diStrict 
discovered enormous beds of 
iron ore near the western end 
of Lake Superior. In some places the ore 
is so soft that, like gravel, it can be dug out 
with steam shovels, and very often it is so 
near the surface that the mines are open 
pits. In other places the mining is done 
underground. That is the case, for exam¬ 
ple, at Ishpeming, in northern Michigan 
(Fig. 144). 

This Lake Superior district is now the 
leading iron-producing center of the world. 


Fig. 143. — A view in the oil fields of Kansas. There is an oil well under 

each derrick. 









THE UNITED STATES 


117 



It includes parts of three states — Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, — the most impor¬ 
tant being Minnesota, — (Fig. 270), and 
the least important Wisconsin. These 
three states together produce sixty-two 
times as much iron ore as 
Pennsylvania, and four-fifths 
of all the iron ore of the coun¬ 
try. The enormous develop¬ 
ment of mining in this region 
has caused numerous towns 
and cities to grow up here. 

It is a very unfortunate 
(2) Why the ore fact that there 
is no coal in this 
iron district. 

For in order that 
be reduced to 


must be trims 
ported, and 
from what 
ports 

the 


ore 


may 


the metal, either coal must 
be carried to the iron mines, 
or else the ore must be moved 
to the coal regions. The 
latter has proved the cheaper. 

Accordingly, hundreds of 
boats sail every year from the lake ports of 
Duluth, Superior, Ashland, and Mar¬ 
quette, loaded with ore for the manu¬ 
facturing centers along the lakes. 

Fortunately the iron deposits are located 
(3 ) How it is n ear waterways. If it were 

loaded, and necessary to haul the heavy 
ore a long distance by rail. 


the expense might be so great as seriously 
to check its production. As it is, however, 
the ore is mined, loaded upon cars, and 
sent over short lines of railway to the lake 
shore. 


Fig. 144. —Au electric motor in an iron mine at Ishpeming, Michigan. 


where sent 


reaching 


Great ore docks (Fig. 145), or piers 
out into deep water, have been built to hold the ore. 
Railway tracks are laid upon the docks, and the 
trains run out upon them to dump their contents 
quickly into bins. On a single pier there are scores 
of bins, which together hold enough ore to fill 
several large vessels. When a vessel is to be loaded, 
it comes up to the pier; then a door at the bottom 
of a bin is opened, allowing hundreds of tons of ore 



Fig. 145. — The great ore docks on the shores of Lake Superior. Trains loaded with ore run out onto these docks 
and dump their ore into large bins up to which vessels come to be loaded. 













118 


NORTH AMERICA 


to slide out. After this, the next bin is emptied, 
and in this way the vessel is filled in a few hours. 

As the ore must reach a point where coal 
is easily obtained, it is taken to such lake 
ports as Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, 
Cleveland, and Buffalo. Notice how 
close to these cities the coal beds extend 
(Fig. 268). From the lake ports the ore is 
also carried by rail to Pittsburgh, as well 


as to many other places in the midst of the 
coal fields. 

Another metal found in the Central 
States is copper, which is valuable in many 
4. Copper ore ways. It is one of the metals 
(l) Uses of used to make bronze, and also 

copper brass ; but of late years a new 

and even greater demand for this metal has 
arisen. Electricity passes through copper 
more easily than through other common 
metals; copper is, therefore, the best 
material for trolley wires, for the wire of 
long-distance telephones, and for wire used 


in electric lighting. Since the use of 
electricity is rapidly increasing, there is a 
growing demand for copper. 

The Indians and early explorers found 
pieces of copper on the surface of the ground 
in northern Michigan. Later ( 2 ) Where the 
it was discovered there in the ore is found 
pores of a lava rock, and between the grains 
of a pebhle beach which was formed in the 
ancient sea, and has since 
hardened into rock. These 
copper-bearing rocks are 
found on the small peninsula 
that extends into Lake 
Superior near Calumet. 
Copper mines were started 
there long ago, and for many 
years that has been one of 
the leading copper-mining 
regions of the world. 

Some of these mines are 
very deep, several of the shafts 

leaching to a ^ now copper 
depth of over is obtained from, 
a mile. When th f ore > und 

where sent 

the ore is drawn 
to the surface, it is found 
mixed with so much beach 
rock and lava, that it must 
first be crushed to a powder 
under powerful hammers, or 
stamps. Then water is run 
over it, in order to carry 
away the bits of rock and 
leave the heavier particles of 
copper. Even after this, some foreign 
substances are still mixed with the copper, 
and these must be removed before the 
metal is fit for use. In order to remove 
them, the copper is next placed in a large 
smelter and melted. The pure copper is 
allowed to run out of the furnace and cool 
in bars to be shipped away (Fig. 146). 
Among the foreign substances is a little 
silver, which is carefully saved. 

As in the case of iron ore, the copper is shipped 
to points along the lakes, and elsewhere, by water 
and by rail. Much of it goes to the metal manui'ac- 



Fig. 146. — Bars of copper on the dock at Houghton, Michigan. These are 
to be carried away by the large lake steamer. 









THE UNITED STATES 


119 


tories in the New England cities (p. 52). Name 
some goods that must be shipped into this section in¬ 
stead of away from it. Why? 

The largest of the copper mines are near together, 
and so many men are employed in obtaining the 
ore, and in getting out the pure 

deoendentTn 11 meta1 ’ that lar S e towns have S rown 
these mines U P near the mines. Within a few 
miles of the most important mines 
are several towns, the largest being Calumet. 
Many of the inhabitants are miners and families of 
miners ; but there must, of course, be storekeepers, 
physicians, teachers, ministers, etc.; and they all 
depend for a living upon the precious copper buried 
far beneath the surface. 

There is an abundance of building stones in the 
Central States. Among these are 

i sandstone and limestone, which are 

era* products shipped in all directions for building 
(1) Building purposes. Limestone is also used 

Hr an ps stint/ . 

and day iu iron smelting and in making 

Portland cement. In addition, there 
are slates and granites in the hilly and mountainous 
sections, as there are in New England (p. 45). 

Several states produce much sand, which is 
melted and made into window glass, bottles, and 
other objects. Clay of various kinds, used in making 
brick, tiles, or pottery is abundant in all the states. 

Lead and zinc, two other metals found in the 
Central States, occur in pockets and little veins in 
layers of limestone. The ores are 
mined in many places, as at Joplin, 
Mo., and then sent to furnaces, where 
the pure metals are separated from the ore. A 
large part of our supply of lead and zinc is obtained 
from Missouri. What are some of the uses of these 
metals ? Of what use should you think this lead 
was to the early pioneers ? 

Gold and lignite are mined in considerable quan¬ 
tities in the Black Hills in the extreme western part 
of South Dakota. 

Much salt is obtained in the Central States, 
especially in Michigan. This state produces more 
salt than any other in the Union, 
New York ranking second, Ohio 
third, and Kansas fourth. 


(2) Lead, zinc, 
and gold 


(3) Salt 


Manufacturing 


The abundance of coal, gas, and water 
power, together with raw materials, has 
led to very extensive manu¬ 
facturing in the Central States. 
Great quantities of corn are consumed in 
making corn meal, hominy, 
l. Manufac- starch, and breakfast foods; 

and some is also used in 


tures from 
agricultural 

products distilleries (p. 106}. I here 


are many flour mills where wheat is made 
into flour; large quantities of oats are 
made into oatmeal; and much barley is 
consumed in the breweries. Canning of 
fruits and vegetables is extensively carried 
on at many places, and the making of sugar 
from the sugar beet has come to be of great 
importance. 

The ranches in the arid section, as well 
as the farms in general, supply animals 
from which meat, lard, soap, and various 
other products are made in several of the 
large cities. The hides of these animals are 
made into shoes, gloves, traveling bags, and 
other articles, while the wool is manufac¬ 
tured into clothing. Cotton is brought 
from the South to be made into cotton 
goods. Much butter and cheese is made in 
every state. 

Near the forests, both along the streams 
and on the shores of the Great Lakes, the 
manufacture of furniture and 2 Manufac- 
other articles of wood is an im- tures from for- 
portant industry. On many est P roducts 
of the rivers of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and 
Michigan, where there is abundant water 
power, there are sawmills, furniture fac¬ 
tories, and planing mills. Some of the most 
important are located in Oshkosh in Wis¬ 
consin, and Saginaw, Bay City, and 
Grand Rapids in Michigan. School 
desks, office desks, chairs, tables, and other 
kinds of furniture are made at Grand 
Rapids, which city is especially noted 
for the manufacture of furniture. Chicago 
manufactures furniture to a considerable 
extent. 

The crude oil is made into many prod¬ 
ucts, as in the Middle Atlantic States. 

Name some of these products 

, aa\ 3. Manufac- 

vP. 00 ). . _ tures from min- 

Vast quantities of iron and erai products 
steel are used in the manufac- (l) Manufac- 
ture of automobiles, motor oil 

trucks, farm machinery, and 
airplane engines. The manufacture of cop¬ 
per goods is another extensive industry, and 
many products are made from lead and zinc. 



120 


NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 147. — The employees of a large manufacturing plant in Dayton, Ohio, 

at luncheon. . 


Metal manufacturing in the Central States 
is quite as important as in the states along 
the Atlantic coast, and the industry is 
rapidly growing. 

Much of the deep soil left in the prairie 
states by the glacier is a clay which is use- 

(2) Manufac- ful in the manufacture of 
tares from clay bricks. As in other sections 
and limestone 0 f the country (p. 69), there 

are many brickyards, especially near the 
large cities. From this same 
kind of clay, flowerpots, 
drainpipes, and other articles 
are made. During recent 
years, when drainage of farm 
land has become common, the 
manufacture of tile for that 


In Missouri, Indiana, Mich¬ 
igan, Ohio, and other states 
of this section, Portland ce¬ 
ment is made from limestone. 
Pennsylvania produces most 
cement, but several of the 
states produce large amounts. 

The handling of so many raw materials 
and manufactured products leads to exten¬ 
sive commerce. The transpor- Transporta- 
tation of bulky goods, such as tion of goods 
ores, coal, and wheat, is particularly impor¬ 
tant where the coal and iron ore are so 
widely separated, and where far more wheat 
is raised than can be consumed. 

The importance of the Great Lakes in 
bringing the ores to the coal and the wheat 


purpose has developed into 
a great industry. Many a 
small town has a tile factory. 


A very high grade of pottery, 
known as Rookwood ware, is man¬ 
ufactured in Cincinnati. The 
best of clay is needed for this, and 
it must be brought from a distance. 
The first step in making a vase is 
to wet a lump of clay so that it 
may easily be molded. Then it is 
placed upon a potter’s wheel, where 
it is whirled rapidly around while 
a man molds it with his hands. 


Fig. 148. — The “ Soo ” Canal. Boats going west pass through the canal on 
the right; those going east pass through the canal on the left. In the 
very front of the picture is the gate of a lock. 


Tn a very few minutes he changes 
the shapeless lump into a delicately 
formed vase. It must then be 
baked, and after the baking, flowers 
or other ornaments may be painted 
upon it. The surface is finally 
covered with a substance which, 
when baked, produces a glaze. One 
of the beauties of the Rookwood 
ware is the peculiar color of the 
glaze, which is a dark or yellowish 
brown. 







THE UNITED ST A TES 


121 


to the Eastern markets is evident. From 
Duluth to Buffalo there is only one place 
where navigation is interfered with. That 
is at the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake 
Huron, where there are some rapids. Here 
a broad canal, large enough for the great 
lake vessels, has been dug. It is called the 
1 S 00 Canal (Fig. 148), after the city Sault 
Ste. Marie, located at this point. 

The Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri riv¬ 
ers, with many smaller tributaries, drain 
almost the entire area of the Central States. 
Which parts are not in the Mississippi River 
drainage area? The three rivers named, as 
well as many smaller ones, are navigable. 
Thus the Great Lakes and the rivers to¬ 
gether afford admirable water transporta¬ 
tion for goods in all directions. 

Railroads have been very easily built in 
this level country, and they connect these 
two vast water ways at many points. Most 
of the great railroad systems that cross the 
continent from east to west pass through 
either Chicago or St. Louis. 

Since the Central States have no ocean 
coast, we naturally find the principal cities 
Principal cities along the Great Lakes and the 
along the Great three great rivers, where it is 
Lakes possible to ship goods by water. 

Let us first consider those along the Great 
Lakes. 

At the western end of Lake Superior 
there is a fine harbor, one side being in 
l Duluth and Minnesota, the other in Wis- 
Superior consin. Upon this harbor are 

two cities, Duluth and Superior, which 
together have a population of over one 
hundred thousand. The chief products of 
this vicinity are iron, lumber, and wheat, 
which are shipped eastward in immense 
quantities from these two ports. Owing to 
the nearness of these cities to the Minnesota 
and Dakota wheat fields, there are enormous 
elevators for storing grain, and flour mills 
for grinding it into flour. 

Goods are shipped to this point as well as from 
it, for the people in this section must depend upon 
other people for their farming implements, clothing, 


various kinds of food, furniture, and coal. These 
goods are brought cheaply, because the vessels carry¬ 
ing ore, wheat, and lumber eastward must have a 
cargo to bring back. Explain how the products of 
this region help to make Buffalo, Montreal, and New 
York important, and to keep the mills and factories 
of New England busy. 

Locate Chicago. At this point the small 
Chicago River empties into 2 . Chicago 
Lake Michigan (Fig. 149), ( i ) History of 
forming a small harbor, on this region 
which a fort was located in early times. 

The harbor itself was formed thousands of years 
ago, while the Great Glacier was melting away. At 
that time, the ice sheet lay across Lake Michigan, 
forming a huge dam which prevented the water from 



Fig 149. — Shipping on the Chicago River. This was the 
first port at Chicago, but now breakwaters built out 
into the lake make a large harbor. 


flowing into Lake Huron, and through the St. Law¬ 
rence River to the sea, as it now does. This forced 
the water to find an outlet southward, past the pres¬ 
ent site of Chicago, into the Illinois River, and 
thence, by way of the Mississippi, into the Gulf of 
M exico. Tt was the wash of this water that dug out 
the small harbor. 

As the West developed, this site proved 
to be a most favorable one ; for whenever 
a railway was built from the Advantages 
East to the Northwest, it was of this site 
necessary for it to pass around the southern 
end of Lake Michigan. As the city grew 
in size, other railways were built to it be¬ 
cause it was large ; and now they approach 
it from the east, west, north, and south 
(Fig. 150). Thus Chicago has become a 
great railway center. 






122 


NORTH AMERICA 



The city is an important shipping point 
for grain, because it lies in the midst of the 
most productive grain region in the world. 


It is also within easy reach of extensive 
coal fields, while lumber and iron ore are 
readily brought to it by boat. These facts 
have caused Chicago to have a wonderful 


growth. In the year 1840, there were but 
4470 inhabitants; in 1870, 300,000; in 
1910, 2,185,283; and now it is the sec¬ 
ond city in size in the 
New World. It has 
long since outgrown its 
small natural harbor, 
and a much larger one 
has been made by build¬ 
ing long breakwaters 
out into the lake. 

Chicago is not only a 
great grain market, but 

also the ,, , 7 

. (3) Meat pack- 

most im- ing and related 
P O r t a 11 t industries 

meat market in the 
world. All the grazing 
states of the West ship 
stock to this point, and 
in the city itself nearly 
a square mile is taken 
up by the Union Stock 
Yards (Fig. 151). In 
these are large sheds for 
the various kinds of 
stock, pens with high 
fences, and troughs for 
food and water (Fig. 
152). Train loads of 
cattle, hogs, and sheep 
are unloaded here every 
day. The work em¬ 
ploys about thirty thou¬ 
sand men. 

The packing houses 
send out a number of 
products. By far the 
most important is meat, 
for most of the cities of 
the East are furnished 
with fresh meat from 
Chicago and other West- 
ern cities. Both live 
cattle and fresh meat are sent in large 
quantities to Europe also. It may be 
several weeks after the meat is prepared 
for food before it reaches the table ; yet 


Fig. 150. — Map showing the location of Chicago and Milwaukee. 















































































THE UNITED STATES 


123 


all tliis time it is kept fresh by the use of 
ice. Special refrigerator cars are built for 
the sole purpose of carrying it. 

Besides the meat that is sold fresh, a great 
deal is canned. The fat of the hog is made 


There are many companies engaged in 
the making of iron and steel goods ; one of 
them alone, the Illinois Steel ( 4 ) other 
Company, employs ten thou- manufacturing 
sand men. An enormous amount of fur- 



Fig. 151. — A general view of the stock yards at Chicago. 


into lard, and not a little beef fat is made 
into imitation butter, called oleomargarine. 
Many of the bones are burned and used in 
the manufacture of sugar (p. 88) ; and the 
horns and hoofs are of use in 
making gelatine and glue. 

The hides are made into shoes, 
gloves, harnesses, and other 
leather goods. Nothing is 
wasted in the packing busi¬ 
ness ; even the bristles of the 
hoef are saved and made into 
brushes; and the hair from 
the hides of cattle is valuable 
in making plaster. 

It is from the Western 
packing houses that the shoe 
factories of Lynn, Haverhill, 

Brockton, and other cities are 
supplied with much of their 
leather. The hides, however, 
must first be sent to tanneries. 

One of the principal places for 
tanneries is Milwaukee, which obtains 
tannic acid from the bark of the hemlock 
tree that grows in the forests of TV isconsin. 


niture is made, and the manufacture of 
farming implements is also very extensive. 
Chicago is the home of the National Har¬ 
vester Company, which controls the manu¬ 


facture of farming implements in most 
parts of the country. A single one of its 
plants sends out about three hundred thou- 



Fig. 152. — A view of a small part of the stock yards (Fig. 151), showing 

cattle in the pens. 



























124 


NORTH AMERICA 



sand farm machines every year. The Pull¬ 
man Car Works made as many as ten 
thousand freight cars in one year, besides 
several hundred Pullman and passenger 
cars. As in New York (p. 73) and other 
great cities, the making of clothing is one 
of the most important industries. These 
are but a few of the kinds of manufactur¬ 
ing in this great city where there are thou¬ 
sands of factories. 

Like other very large cities, Chicago has 
much difficulty in providing transportation 
(5) Transporta- for the people of the city. 
tion and sewage Street cars are one important 
means, and many steam railways carry 


( 6 ) Education 


Fig. 153. — A view of the elevated railway in Chicago at the 

the Union Loop. 

passengers to and from the heart of the 
city. There are elevated railways (Fig. 
153), also, as in New York, and under¬ 
ground roads, as well. But unlike New 
York, the underground roads are used 
mainly for hauling freight. 

Another great difficulty has been the proper care 
of the sewage of the city. For a long time it was 
poured into Lake Michigan ; but as the drinking 
water was taken from the lake, this became very 
dangerous to the health of the people. In order to 
carry it away, there is an immense drainage canal 
(Fig. 150), connecting Lake Michigan with the 
Illinois River, and thus setting the current toward 


the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. This drain¬ 
age canal, which is wide and deep enough for boats, 
may in time develop into a ship canal. In that 
case, large ships may reach Chicago from the Gulf 
of Mexico, as they now do from the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. IV’hat effect would this have upon the 
city ? 

Chicago lias an excellent system of edu¬ 
cation, from the lowest grades to the univer-. 
sity, and hundreds of buildings 
are given up to this work 
alone. The chief educational institution is 
the University of Chicago, which, although 
established as recently as 1890, now has 
more students than some of the older uni¬ 
versities of the East. At Evanston is 
the Northwestern University; 
and at Champaign the Uni¬ 
versity of Illinois, one of the 
most progressive and rapidly 
growing of the state uni¬ 
versities. 

Other large cities along the 
lakes are engaged in many of 

the Same indus- 3 . Milwaukee 
tries as Chicago, and Racine 
Milwaukee (Fig. 150), the 
largest city in Wisconsin, deals 
extensively in grain, lumber, 
and leather, packs much pork, 
and manufactures a great quan¬ 
tity of flour and machinery. 
Its tanneries and immense 

point known as breweries have already been 
mentioned (pp. Ill and 123). 
Locate Racine, a smaller but 
important lake port. 

Detroit (Fig. 154), the largest city in 
Michigan, is also on the Great Lakes water 
route. All vessels going east 4 . Detroit and 
or west must pass this city, Ann Arbor 
and some railroads connecting the East and 
the West either cross the strait at Detroit 
or pass under it by a tunnel. Being at the 
crossing of important railway and steamship 
lines, Detroit has become a great shipping 
and manufacturing center. It is one of 
the leading American cities in the manu¬ 
facture of automobiles. It deals in grain, 










THE UNITED STATES 


125 



Oetroii 


•Windsor 


Toronto 


'Milwaukee 


levetand 


Tl.WiVnY 


•Vf'ttsbufaffj 


‘olumUus 1 


Ind- »nap.o'v> 


Cincinnati 


S$*'CHarlc«lo« 


Cummi 


B.*nk.,wl!c 


wool, pork, and ores from the West, and 
makes iron and steel goods. 

Not far away, at Ann Arbor, is the 
University of Michigan, 
one of the largest in the 
United States. It is sup¬ 
ported by the state. In 
fact, state universities 
are established in most of 
the Central, Southern, 
and Western States. 

Some are located at the 
state capitals: for in¬ 
stance, the University of 
Ohio is at Columbus, the 
University of Wisconsin 
at Madison, and the Uni¬ 
versity of Nebraska at 
Lincoln. Others, like 
the universities of Il¬ 
linois, Missouri, and 
Michigan, are located at 
other places than the 
capital. If there is one 
in your state, where is it ? 

On the lake shore in 
Ohio the chief cities are 

5. Cleveland TOLEDO and 
and Toledo CLEVELAND 

(Fig. 154). The former 
has extensive flour mills 
and iron manufactories; 
and the latter, which is a 
much larger city, being 
even larger than Cincin¬ 
nati, Detroit, or Buffalo, 
has an important trade 
in grain, lumber, and 
ore. The situation of 
Cleveland near the coal 
and petroleum fields has 
led to extensive manu¬ 
facturing of machinery, 
furniture, and other 
goods. Much petroleum 
is refined here, and the building of ships 
for the lake commerce is an important 
industry. 


The lai gest city on the Principal 
rivers, corresponding to Chi- cities along 
cago on the lakes, is St. Louis, the rivers 


the fourth in size among our cities (Fig. 
157). It has a very favorable l. st. Louis 
position in the center of the (l) its location 


Fig. 154. — Map showing the location of Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Pitts¬ 
burgh, and their relation to the trade routes of the Central and Middle Atlantic 
States. 
















































126 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 155. — Shipping on the Great Lakes. The peculiar ship in the foreground is called a whaleback. 



Mississippi Valley, on the Mississippi 
River, near the mouths of its two largest 
tributaries. The railway bridges across the 
Mississippi at this point have also had great 
influence on the growth of the city. It is 
an important shipping point both by water 
and by rail. 


Like Chicago, St. Louis is one of our 
leading markets for grain and live stock ; 
(2) its Indus- but, being so far south, it 
tries handles Southern products also, 

especially cotton and tobacco. Besides this, 
it is a great manufacturing center. It man¬ 
ufactures immense quantities of tobacco, 
beer, flour, clothing, iron, steel goods, and 


is the greatest manufacturing center of boots 
and shoes in the United States. 

At one time Chicago and St. Louis were 
almost the only noted markets for grain 
and live stock in the West; 2 . st. Paul and 
but in later years several other Minneapolis 
cities have become prominent. Two of these 

are the “twin cities,” 
Minneapolis and St. 
Paul (Fig. 157), both 
on the Mississippi River. 
The latter, the capital 
of Minnesota, is a trade 
center. From it the 
products of the West 
are sent east and south, 
while farm implements, 
furniture, clothing, and 
other articles are dis¬ 
tributed among the 
smaller towns round 
about. 

Minneapolis, only 
ten miles distant, is 
situated at the Falls 
of St. Anthony, which furnish splendid 
water power (Fig. 158). Its location in 
the midst of the wheat region, together 
with its water power, has caused Minne¬ 
apolis to become the leading flour-produc¬ 
ing center of America. In the city are 
many sawmills, grain elevators, and flour 
mills. 


Fig. 155.— A railway bridge across the Missouri River above St. Louis. 

















THE UNITED STATES 


127 


One of these flour mills, 
belonging to the Pillsbury- 
Washburn Company, is one 
of the largest in the world. 
Steam shovels scoop the grain 
from the trains very rapidly, 
emptying a car of 7o0 bushels 
in eighteen or nineteen min¬ 
utes. All straw, useless seeds, 
sticks, etc., are first separated 
from the grain; then it passes 
through different machines 
until the pure flour is pro¬ 
duced. During this process it is 
raised to the top of the build¬ 
ing twelve different times, be¬ 
ing carried up by rapidly mov¬ 
ing belts having many small 
buckets, or pockets, attached. 

Just inside the husk of a 
wheat grain is the kernel, the 
most valuable part of the 
wheat. The husk is removed 
by machinery, and sold for 
bran and shorts, and the cen¬ 
ter, called the heart, or germ, 
is made into breakfast food. 
The other portion is ground 
into flour, poured into sacks 
and barrels by machinery, 
and then sent sliding down 
a chute into the cars which 
stand near by. This one mill 
has ground as much as 61,000 
barrels of flour in one day. 
One year the daily output of 
five mills was about 36,000 
barrels. 



Iffi 


'Milwaukee 


hicaq'vi 


Norfcll 


Ties Me toes 


XotWCtl Bluffs 


Lincoln, 


NebrnsVa 
Ben t rierl 


icualuC* 


NcU AH>an; 


V Ah rja t Js 4. 


►"Bowling 

Gr«;n r 


on the Missis¬ 
sippi 


Smaller cities on the 
Mississippi River water- 

3. Other cities W a Y ’ ^ je “ 

tween Min- 

n e a p o 1 i s 
and St. Louis, are Wi¬ 
nona, in Minnesota; La 
Crosse, in Wisconsin; 

Dubuque and Davenport, in Iowa ; and 
Quincy, in Illinois. Find each. Each is 
important either for lumber, grain, or farm¬ 
ing implements, or for all three combined. 
The leading cities on the Missouri River 

4 . Cities on are KANSAS ClTY (Fig. 157), 

and near the in western Missouri, and 
Missouri Omaha, in Nebraska. Each 


Fig. 157. — Map showing the location of St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, 
Minneapolis, and St. Paul. 


is surrounded by a fertile farming country, 
which produces much grain. Each is also 
a market for cattle, sheep, and horses 
raised near by and in the arid region farther 
west. Being so near the ranch country, the 
meat-packing industries in both of these 
cities are gaining rapidly each year. Note 
that there is also a Kansas City in Kansas. 









































































1*28 


NORTH AMERICA 




Fig. 158. — The St. Anthony Falls at Minneapolis - 

in the distance. 


On the river above Kansas City is St. 
Joseph, in Missouri; and below it is Jef¬ 
ferson City, the capital of that state. 
Farther west, in Kansas, are Topeka, the 
capital, and Wichita. Southwest of Omaha 
is Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska; and 
across the river, in Iowa, is Council 
Bluffs, a very active trading center. 
Several cities northwest of this point are 
chiefly important as trade centers. Find 
some of them on the map. 

Locate Des Moines, the 
capital and largest city of 
Iowa. Of what advantage is 
its central position in a level 
farming country. 

In the Middle Atlantic 
States, Pittsburgh, and Wheel- 
5. Cities in the ing, on the upper 
Ohio Valley Ohio, owe their 

importance largely to coal and 
iron, and to the fact that river 
boats can reach them. Farther 
down the river is Cincinnati 
(Fig. 154), the largest river 
port in the state of Ohio, and 
a busy shipping and manu¬ 
facturing center (Fig. 159). 

Besides pottery (p. 120), this 
city manufactures large quan¬ 
tities of iron, machinery, and 
clothing. Across the river, 
in Kentucky, are Covington 


and Newport (Fig. 
154), both almost a part 
of Cincinnati, as Jersey 
City is almost a part of 
New York. 

Farther north and 
east, in Ohio, are Day- 
ton and Springfield, 
both noted for the 
manufacture of farm 
machinery. Dayton, 
likewise manufactures 
cash registers, railway 
cars, and airplanes. 

There is a flying field 
for testing airplanes in the vicinity. Co¬ 
lumbus, the capital of Ohio, is an important 
trade center, and manufactures many car¬ 
riages and wagons. Why should farm ma¬ 
chinery, tractors, and motor trucks be 
manufactured in so many of these cities ? 

Down the river, below Cincinnati, is 
Louisville, the largest city in Kentucky. 
There are rapids in the Ohio at this point, 
but a canal leads around them. Besides 


-some of the factories are seen 


Fig. 159. — River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati. 











THE UNITED STATES 


129 


being a center for tobacco, like Richmond 
and St. Louis, Louisville manufactures iron 
goods, farming implements, flour, and 
leather goods. It is also a railway center. 

Evansville, the largest river port in 
Indiana, is principally engaged in the 
manufacture of Hour, machinery, and leather 
goods. Indianapolis, the capital and me¬ 
tropolis of Indiana, is in the midst of a 
splendid farming district. Like Columbus, 
it is a railway and trade center, and handles 
much grain, lumber, furniture, and many 
farming implements. 

1. To what extent is the land level in the Central 
States? 2. What about forests and bowlders there? 
Review D esci 'ibe the temperature, giving 

Questions reasons for the extremes. What is 

meant by a continental climate ? By 
an equable climate? 4. What about the rainfall? 
5. State the importance of agriculture. Describe the 
farm in central Ohio, and the farm life. 6. To what 
extent is Indian corn raised in these states? 7. How 
is it cultivated and harvested? 8. What are its 
uses ? 9. How extensively is wheat produced, and 

in what sections ? 10. Describe wheat raising on 
the large farm mentioned. 11. What cities have 
been much influenced in growth by the wheat raised 
in the valley of the Red lliver of the North? Why? 
12. What fruits‘are grown, and where? 13. What 
vegetables? 14. Where is tobacco raised? 15. What 
are the principal domestic animals raised, and where? 
1(3. What can you tell about the fine stock in Ken¬ 
tucky, and the caverns there? 17. Name other im¬ 
portant farm products east of the arid lands. 18. 
What is meant by the Great Plains, and what is 
their extent ? 19. How is irrigation carried on, and 

what are the products of the irrigated farms? 
20. Tell about ranching; its extent; how it is car¬ 
ried on ; and a ranchman’s life. 21. What is the 
extent of forests in these states, and what kind of 
trees are there ? 22. Describe the method of lumber¬ 
ing, and name the centers of the industry. 23. What 
about fishing in these states ? 24. Where are the 
coal mines, and what is the kind of coal ? Where 
are oil and gas found ? 25. Why is gas an espe¬ 

cially cheap fuel ? 26. Locate the Lake Superior 
iron ore district, and tell about its importance. 
27. Why must the ore be taken elsewhere to be 
smelted, and from what ports ? 28. How is the ore 
loaded on to the vessels, and where is it taken ? 
29. What are the uses of copper ? 30. Where is cop¬ 
per ore found? 31. How is the copper obtained 
from the ore, and where is it sent? 32. How 
have the copper mines influenced settlement? 
33. What about building stones in these states? j 


34. Name other- mineral products, and tell where 
found. 35. What are the leading kinds of 
manufacturing from the agricultural products ? 
36. Name the principal kinds of manufacturing 
from forest products, and the chief cities en¬ 
gaged in them. 37. What about the impor¬ 
tance of the manufactures from oil? From ores? 
38. What about manufactures from clay and lime¬ 
stone ? 39. What conditions favor the transportation 
of goods? 40. Name and locate the principal cities 
along the Great Lakes. 41. State the chief facts 
about Duluth and Superior. 42. Outline the history 
of the region about Chicago. State the advantages 
of the site of the city. 43. Give an account of meat 
packing and related industries there. 44. What 
other kinds of manufacturing are prominent in Chi¬ 
cago? 45. What means of transportation are pro¬ 
vided in the city? 46. How is the sewage taken 
care of? 17. What about education in this vicinity? 

48. What can you tell about Milwaukee and Racine? 

49. Detroit and Ann Arbor? 50. Cleveland and 
Toledo ? 51. Name and locate the principal cities 
along the great rivers. 52. For what is St. Louis 
especially important? 53. St. Paul and Minneapo¬ 
lis ? o4. Name smaller cities on the Mississippi 
River and tell of their importance. 55. Locate and 
tell what you can about the various cities along and 
near the Missouri River. 56. State the principal 
facts about the cities in the Ohio Valley. 

Ohio ( O.). 1. Name the four largest.cities (Appen¬ 
dix, pp. 454M:55). State the advantages of each loca¬ 
tion. 2. What other cities of Ohio . 
are mentioned? For what is each evie w Ques- 

important? 3. Why is there much 10ns ^ a es 
manufacturing in this state ? 4. What other indus¬ 
tries are mentioned in the text ? 5. Examine the 
maps (Figs. 249-259) in order to see what crops are 
especially important in Ohio. 6. In what ways are 
the cities of Ohio dependent upon New Orleans and 
New York? How are the latter cities dependent 
upon those in Ohio ? 7. Of what service to Cleve¬ 
land and Toledo is the Erie Canal ? 8. Draw a 

sketch map of Ohio like that of Maine (p. 56). As 
you study each state, do the same. 

Indiana (Ind.). 9. Examine the maps (Figs. 249- 
259), to see what crops are produced in Indiana. 
10. What minerals are found here? 11. Which is the 
largest city? For what noted? 12. What other 
cities are mentioned? 13. What are the industries 
of Indiana? 14. Of what importance was the fact 
that a large part of this section was treeless when 
discovered ? 

Kentucky (Ky.). 15. Why should this state be 

better adapted to tobacco raising than Ohio? 16. Of 
what importance is the limestone of Kentucky ? 

17. Where are most of the cities ? Why there ? 

18. What products are mentioned from Ken¬ 
tucky? 19. Which is the largest city? For what 





130 


NORTH AMERICA 


important? 20. What other cities are men¬ 
tioned ? 

Illinois (Ill.). 21. Examine the maps (Figs. 249- 
259) to see what crops are especially important. 
22. Why is there much manufacturing in Illinois? 
What kinds are carried on ? 23. Of what value is 
the lake to manufacturing? 24. State the reasons 
why Chicago has developed so greatly. 25. What 
other cities are mentioned in this state? For what 
is each important? 26. Which of the four states so 
far reviewed is the largest ? Which smallest (Ap¬ 
pendix, pp. 452-453) ? 

Michigan (Mich.). 27. What lakes does this state 
border? Of what advantage is this? 28. What 
disadvantage can you see in the fact that water 
separates the lower from the upper peninsula of 
Michigan? 29. Ice stops canal traffic in winter. 
What effect must this have ? 30. Into what waters 
does this state drain ? Contrast this drainage with 
that of the other states. 31. Where are most of the 
large cities? Why there? 32. For what is each 
important? 33. Give the reasons for the location of 
Detroit? 34. What are the important products of 
Michigan ? 

Wisconsin (Wis.). 35. Which is the largest city 
in this state? For what important? 36. What 
other cities are mentioned in the text ? What is done 
in each? 37. Compare Wisconsin with Michigan 
in relief; in mineral products; in crops ; in the size 
of cities. 38. What effect must the lakes have upon 
the climate ? Would this influence be greater or less 
than in Michigan ? Why? 39. If there were coal 
beds in northern Wisconsin, what effect might the 
coal have upon Chicago, Cleveland, and the coal 
mining of Pennsylvania? 

Minnesota (Minn.). 40. Where does the Missis¬ 
sippi River rise ? 41. What oceans receive the 

waters that fall upon Minnesota? Give proof. 
42. What manufacturing industries are carried on 
in this state? 43. What crops are raised? 44. 
Name the three largest cities, and tell how each is 
important. 45. How does the largest compare in 
size with Boston? With Cincinnati ? 

Iowa (la.). 46. Examine the maps (Figs. 249- 
259) to see what crops are raised in this state. 

47. What other important industries are carried on ? 

48. Name the largest cities. For what are they 
noted? 49. Much corn is raised here; what is done 
with it? 

Missouri (Mo.). 50. Examine Figures 249-259 
to see how the crops of Missouri differ from those of 
Minnesota. Why this difference ? 51. Why are so 
few large towns found in the southwestern part? 
52. Name and locate the two largest cities. For 
what is each important? 53. What other cities are 
mentioned? 54. Find the population of St. Louis; 


compare it with that of Philadelphia and Boston. 
55. Give five reasons for its great size. 

Kansas (Ivan.). 56. Why are the cities in the 
eastern part? 57. What are the industries of the 
West? Why? 58. What are the leading crops in 
Kansas (Figs. 249-259)? What other industries 
are important? 59. Name the principal cities. 
For what is each noted? 

Nebraska (Neb.). 60. How do the industries of 

Nebraska compare with those of Kansas? Why? 
61. IIow are these states alike in regard .to location 
of cities? 62. What cities in Nebraska are men¬ 
tioned ? 63. For what is Omaha noted ? 

North and South Dakota (N.D. and S.D.). 
64. These two states once formed the territory of 
Dakota. Suggest reasons for making two states out 
of the one territory. 65. Compare the industries of 
the two states with those of Nebraska and Kansas. 
66. Look at the corn and wheat maps (Figs. 249 and 
251) to see where most wheat and corn are produced. 
Is North Dakota more or less important than Kansas 
as a corn-producing state ? Answer the same for 
wheat. Why is this so ? 67. Of what advantage 
would it be to Fargo if a deep river extended from 
that city to Duluth ? 68. IIow do the Black Hills 
increase the wealth of South Dakota? 


69. Which state is the largest in this group (Ap¬ 
pendix, pp. 452-453) ? Which smallest ? Compare 
each of these in area with Pennsyl¬ 
vania; with Texas. 70. Which of the General Review 

Central States has most inhabitants ^ ues 10ns 
(Appendix, p. 452) ? Which fewest ? Compare each 
of these in population with New York; with Texas. 
71. Find the largest ten cities (Appendix, p. 453). 


1. Find how much earlier in the fall frosts come 
in Minneapolis than in Memphis. 2. How do farms 
that you have seen differ from the _ 

Ohio farm described in the text? Suggestions 

3. How does the wind often help ranch cattle to ob¬ 
tain food in winter ? 4. What are some of the ad¬ 
ventures that cowboys experience ? 5. Wby are 

coal and brick especially valuable in a prairie coun¬ 
try? 6. Visit a brickyard, and write a description 
of brickmaking. 7. See how long a list you can 
make of articles manufactured partly or wholly out 
of copper. 8. Do the same with regard to lead. 
9. IIow are the advantages of the location of Chicago 
somewhat similar to those of Atlanta? 10. Make a 
drawing of the great water route from Duluth to 
New York City, and put in the leading cities located 
upon it. What states border on this route ? 

11. Make a drawing of the Mississippi, Missouri, 
and Ohio rivers, and include the leading cities. 
What states do these rivers border or cross ? 

12. Make a sketch map of the Central States, in¬ 
cluding the principal lakes, rivers, and cities. 







THE UNITED STATES 


131 



' 


Modeled by Edwin E. Howstl 




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F-f a 


.4 t 1 TgV 

> ,.d# . 






J* 



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yjLjiM 



/T fciSte) 

Jr V jk • 

FT ♦ 


dot 


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/rj f** k; 

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Fig. 160. •—Relief map of the Western States 








Cape Flattery 


S ‘r«i, u , „ 

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tu [ 


,o 

^ilumbia L 




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South 


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Moose Jaw 





1 Walla 
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Pendleton 


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■ k . > P k -—— i-~ 

Salmdn 1 1 


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Lassen 


We * 
Lake 






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pa/£ 
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P""* lSS&£t6vo s S& 

—Spring-ville 


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r Salt Lake Cit 



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Wheatland 

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yNEBRASKA 


aSCVK' r N T^f “ ! ' ” Eiy|o 


M 


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Santa CruVo "A < I"' 



'ah 0 

V ' ° Goldfield Pi T he 

\ Caliente o 

X WhyWite 
^-.voo Beatty 
^^SBullfrog 


Lake 
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Ne^^Mt.Pleas, 

s 55 M.v^ 




* Fresno f^^ltney ^ _ 

1 v ”0 °“'« a A“P\. Las Ve gas 


V—?*»» de t^* eroardint 

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ISLANDS 


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Laramie 
C HEYENN E® 

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Collins 

Bo'ulder 

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Mountfof the f D 6 HV 6 T 


'HSty Cross . , J, )e 

Aspen- cp ea / I - Pe° k . 

lid^5>oE.ueblo 



imarrpn 


San Francisco Peak 
Kinsman Flagstaff" 
.^Williams 0 


t Jerome§k, Winsl ° w 
° Prescott 


St.Johns 


SA> 

l/ 3 Gall up 




WESTERN STATES 

Scale oi Miles 


0 60 100 160 

Cities with over 300,000_ 

Cities with 200,000 to 300,000_ 

Cities with 100,000 to 200,000_ 

Cities with 25,000 to 100,000 _ 

Smaller Places _ 

Capitals with less than 25,000- _ 
Capitals © 

WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N.V. I 


200 250 300 

SAN FRANCISCO 
-Seattle’ 

-Oakland 

-Butte 

- Tucson » 

-Santa Eh J} 

Other Cities o 


120 ° 



IDeming 
Wilcox I 

,Bisbee I_j 



NEW VI E X 

Socorn 

4„ 




FIG. 161. 























































































THE UNITED STATES 


133 


6. Western States 

1. Compare this group with each of the other 
groups in relief (Fig. 41) ; in area, and in population 

Man Studv (Appendix, pp. 452-453)? 2. Which 
is the largest state ? Which the small¬ 
est? How does each of these compare in size wit!) 
Pennsylvania? With Texas? 3. What becomes 
of the water of the Humboldt River? 4. Name 
the five largest rivers. Where does each rise, through 
what states does it flow, and where does it empty? 
5. Name the principal mountain ranges; the plateaus 
(Fig. 41). 6. Where are the largest cities? Why 
there? 7. Find the Yosemite and Yellowstone 
parks. 8. Name the states having a seacoast. 


9. Name those states whose waters drain mainly or 
entirely into the Pacific; into the Atlantic ; into the 
Great Basin. 

While the pioneers were settling the 
prairies of the Central States, almost noth¬ 
ing was known about the Far 
Early history ^est. The Spanish had taken 

possession of the southern portion, and 
many of their names, such as New Mexico, 
Los Angeles, and San Francisco are still to 
be found there. The northern portion, 
called Oregon, was claimed by English- 
speaking people, and there was a great 
immigration to the Willamette valley in 
1843. 

In 1848 gold was discovered in the 

r. Discovery Of stream S ravels of California, 
gold in Califor- For ages the precious metal 
had lain scattered through 


the rocks of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 
Then, as the mountains slowly crumbled, it 
had been washed into the streams. Being 
very heavy, it dragged along at the bottom, 
lodging here and there in the stream beds. 
It was such gold as this that was first found. 

As the discovery became known, tens of 
thousands of persons in the East left farms, 
factories, and homes in a mad 2 . Effect of the 
rush for the gold fields. Some discovery 
sailed all the way around South America; 
others crossed the Isthmus of Panama ; but 
many traveled overland, running the risk 
of attack from Indians and 
of death from thirst. There 
were then no railways west 
of the Mississippi, and the 
journey was long, tedious, and 
dangerous. 

The discovery of gold 
quickly drew so many per¬ 
sons to California that the 
territory was able to enter 
the Union as a state in 1850 ; 
and, as the search for the 
precious metal was carried 
farther and farther, the entire 
West soon became explored 
and settled. Railways were 
built across the mountains (Fig. 280), and 
many industries, such as farming, lumber¬ 
ing, and manufacturing, have followed 
mining. Indeed, in many sections these 
industries are now much more important 
than the mining. 

The Western States are made up almost 

entirely of plateaus and rnoun- Sur f ace 0 f the 

tains. Much of the surface is country 

more than a mile above sea 1 , The three 

level, while some mountain principal moun- 
. . .. tain systems 

peaks are two miles or more 

in height. 

The extreme eastern portion is a part 
of the Great Plains, which reach to the 
very base of the Rocky Mountains. These 
mountains (Fig. 41) extend entirely 
across our country, into Mexico on the 
south, and Canada on the north. They 



Fig. 162.—These powerful streams of water wash the gravel away, and the 
gold collects in the bottom of troughs or sluices. This is called hy¬ 
draulic mining. 












134 


NORTH AMERICA 


consist of a large number of ranges and 
ridges, which reach their greatest height in 
Coiorado. A long distance farther west, 
and almost parallel with the Rockies, is an¬ 
other system of mountains, called the Sierra 
Nevada in California and the Cascade 
Ranges in Oregon and Washington. Still 
farther west, and close to the coast, is a 
third system known as the Coast Ranges , 
some portions of which rise directly out 
of the ocean. The highest peak in all these 
mountains is Mount \V hitney, in Califor¬ 
nia, the loftiest mountain in the United 
States proper. 

Between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Sierra Nevada-Cascade ranges, is a broad 
2. The valleys valley dotted with numerous 
between short mountain ridges, extend¬ 

ing north and south. There is a plateau at 
each end, and a broad basin of interior drain¬ 
age between, in which there are a number 
of salt lakes. It may be divided into three 
parts (Fig- 41) : (1) The great Columbia 
Plateau of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, 
on the north; (2) the Colorado Plateau of 
Arizona and Utah, on the south ; and (3) 
the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada be¬ 
tween the two. The numerous short moun¬ 
tain ranges in the Great Basin are called 


the Basin Ranges. 

Between the Sierra Nevada-Cascade sys¬ 
tem and the Coast Ranges there is an area 
of lowland (Fig. 42). In California, Ore¬ 
gon, and Washington this forms a fertile 
valley; in Washington it is partly occu¬ 
pied by Puget Sound. 

Throughout much of this Western coun¬ 
try volcanoes were once very active (p. 8). 

3 The vcica- Indeed, one of them. Mount 
noes. and their Lassen in northern California, 
influence has within recent years become 

active. Among the extinct volcanoes are 
Mount Rainier (Fig. 163), within sight of 
Tacoma and Seattle, Wash.; Mount 
Hood, not far from Portland, Ore.; and 
Mount Shasta,in northern California. Other 
fine volcanic cones in this region are Mount 
Baker, Mount Adams,and Mount St. Helens. 


Lava covers hundreds of thousands of square 
miles in these Western States, and its decay has pro¬ 
duced a soil which is very fertile. The lava has 
also had an important effect upon the deposit of 
valuable minerals. Veins of gold and silver usually 
occupy cracks in the rock, caused by the breaking 



Copyright by A. IT. Barnes. 

Fig. 163. — Mount Rainier from Tacoma. This beautiful, 
snow-capped peak is 60 miles away. 

of the rock layers while the mountains were form¬ 
ing. Through these cracks water passes, often 
heated so hot by the buried lava that it is able to 
dissolve mineral matter and carry it along. As the 
water cools, on nearing the surface, it cannot hold 
all of this mineral in solution, and therefore deposits a 
part of it on the walls of the cracks. In this way many 
valuable veins of metal have been slowly formed, 
and it is for those that thousands of miners are 
now searching. Ilot water still flows from the earth 
in many parts of the West, the section most noted 
for this being the Yellowstone Park. In this water 
there is much mineral matter in solution, and in 
some cases even small quantities of gold. 

In the East, there is little variety in the 
climate, even over large sections ; but in 
the West the variety is great. The climate 
Even in a single state there are i. Extent of 
often great differences. Nearly arid lands 
everywhere, excepting in the Northwest and 
on the mountain slopes and plateaus, it is 
so dry that no agriculture is possible with¬ 
out irrigation. Almost one fifth of the 
United States is unfit for agriculture with¬ 
out irrigation, and most of this arid land is 
in these Western States. 

Parts of southern California, Nevada, 
Utah, and Arizona, and smaller portions of 










TIIE UNITED ST A TES 


135 


each of the other states, are true desert. 
Near the western shores of Great Salt Lake, 
for example, not a tree nor even a shrub is 
to be seen for miles and miles (Fig. 164). 
The entire surface is covered by a glisten¬ 
ing whitish substance called alkali. In 
other regions dreary wastes extend for 
hundreds of miles, broken only by a few 
cacti and other arid land plants, by rocky 
ledges, and by occasional mountain peaks. 

The scarcity of streams on the map in and 
near Nevada shows clearly the lack of water 
there. That section is a real basin, having 
a rim higher than the center, and for that 
reason it is called the Great Basin (Fig. 41). 




•,r v • - -jesse 

- ■ - -r.v - . - 


tions, as in the high mountain vallej^s and 
in the wheat district of central and eastern 
Washington and Oregon. 

Throughout the West the higher moun¬ 
tains and plateaus receive enough rain for 
crops. That this is true is (2) The hifjher 
proved by the numerous large plateaus, and 
rivers which have their sources the mountains 
there. Name and locate those flowing from 
the Rocky Mountains into the Mississippi. 
Trace the Rio Grande and its principal 
tributary, the Pecos; also the rivers that 
empty into the Pacific Ocean. Although 
long, many of these rivers are shallow, and 
during the summer season some, like the 

Rio Grande, al¬ 
most disappear in 
the middle part 
of their course. 
()thers, like the 
Columbia and 
Sacramento, are 
navigable in parts 
of their course. 











Fig. 164. — The desert near Great Salt Lake in Utah. 


Some of the few streams flow into shallow 
salt lakes, which are growing more and more 
salt as the years pass; others dry up and 
disappear in the sand. 

Along the northwestern coast the damp 
west winds from the ocean bring so much 
2 Th li vapor that the rainfall is heavy, 
watered sec- I ndeed, along the coast of Wash- 
tions iuefton the rainfall is heavier 

O 

(l) The north- than in any other part of the 
western coast United (F j g . 393 ), the 

greatest amount falling in winter. 1 here 
is also plenty of rain in western Oregon and 
the northern half of California. 

Being robbed of its vapor in crossing the 
mountains, the air descends on the eastern 
side quite dry; and there agriculture with¬ 
out irrigation is possible in only a few sec¬ 


The importance of 
the higher plateaus 
in condensing vapor 
is well shown by the 
highlands of central 
Arizona. A person 
traveling eastward from Los Angeles, on the Atchi¬ 
son, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway, finds himself, 
upon reaching the Colorado River in the evening, 
in the midst of a desert about five hundred feet 
above sea level. If. it is summer, the thermometer 
may register from 110° to 120° in the shade, for this 
is the hottest region in the United States; indeed, 
it is even hotter than most parts of the torrid zone. 

After leaving the river, the train slowly winds its 
way up onto the Colorado plateau, seven thousand 
feet high, and the next morning the almost unbear¬ 
able heat of the previous day is replaced by a delight¬ 
fully cool air. As if by magic the scene is changed; 
the barren wastes of sand are gone, and a green for¬ 
est is on all sides. This change is due to the simple 
fact that the air is cooler on the high plateau, and 
the vapor can therefore be condensed into rain, while 
there is less evaporation of the water in the soil. 

Finally, in the desert itself are many 

oases where water for irriga- ^ o 

■ i i -r> -j c (3) The oases 
tion is at hand. By aid ot 








130 


NORTH AMERICA 


water, even the most barren land may be 
transformed to a beautiful garden (Fig. 165). 
Every one of the Western States con¬ 
tains mineral deposits of some 
Mining f kind, such as gold, silver, 

minerals 5 , and copper, lead, mercury, petro- 
ownership of leum, and coal. This region 
mining lands - g nQW one 0 f the m0 st im¬ 
portant mining districts in the world. 


to get the gold out of these gravels, but 
in some places these ancient stream beds 
have been covered with a thick 2. Methods of 
layer of hard lava. Then it odning gold 
is necessary for the miners to tunnel under 
the lava in order to obtain the gold. 

The first miners obtained the gold in a very simple 
manner. Placing some of the stream << p ann i n g ” 
gravel in a pan of water, they rocked the geld 



Fig. 1G5. — This view, near Pasadena, California, shows the barren arid lands, in the midst of which are extensive 

orange groves, irrigated by water from the mountains. 


Much of the land is still owned by the government, 
and all ore that is discovered upon it belongs to the 
finder. Any citizen of the United States may become 
the owner of a valuable mine, if he can find one on 
government land. With such a hope, hundreds of 
prospectors are digging tunnels into the earth where- 
ever they believe they may obtain ore. In most cases 
they are doomed to disappointment; but they keep 
trying, moving from one place to another, always 
hoping for a rich reward. Sometimes valuable ore 
is found, and then a poor prospector suddenly finds 
himself a rich man. 

Much gold has been discovered in the 
river gravels. In many regions it is easy 


it back and forth in such a way as to cause the 
heavier particles of gold to sink to the bottom of 
the pan, while the lighter minerals on top were 
washed out and thrown away. Most of the gold was 
in very small flakes, but sometimes the miners found 
large lumps of gold, called nuggets, worth hundreds 
of dollars. This method of washing away the gravel 
in pans was called “ panning ” the gold. 

Very soon the miners tired of such a slow pro¬ 
cess. They then invented the far more speedy plan 
of hydraulic mining. By this method (2) Hydraulic 
a large, powerful stream of water, mining 
from the nozzle of a pipe, is turned against a gravel 
bank, washing the gravel rapidly away (Fig. 162). 
The water, with the gravel and gold, then runs into 








THE UNITED STATES 


137 


steeply sloping troughs, or sluices, the bottoms of 
which are made rough by many cleats. The rush¬ 
ing water carries the gravel over these cleats to 
the end of the sluice, where it is dropped; but the 
gold, being so heavy, settles to the bottom of the 
sluice and is caught behind the blocks. Later it is 
removed and carried away to be sold. 

In this way much gold was formerly obtained from 
the gravels of California and other Western States. 
For example, even the gravel out of which some of 
the streets of Helena, Mout., are built has been 
washed for gold in this way. 

The method by which most gold is now 

obtained, is to dig into the solid rock, as in 

(3 ) The common the case of other metals. The 

method now shafts and tunnels follow the 

► 

veins from which the gold in the gravels 
came. In the veins, the metal is found 
mixed with other minerals which are of 
little or no value. This mixture forms 
gold ore, and there is so little gold in such 
ore, and it is in such small grains, that one 
may spend days in a mine looking for it 
without seeing any. The gold ore, like 
other ores already studied, must be crushed 
and melted before the gold itself can be 
obtained. 

One of the most remarkable gold-min¬ 
ing districts in the world is that of the Com- 
3. Noted min- Stock Lode at VIRGINIA ClTY, 
ing districts Nev. The vein is irregular 
(1) in Nevada i n richness, some parts, called 
“bonanzas,” containing much gold and 
silver, while elsewhere it is quite barren. 
So much metal has been obtained from 
this single vein that Nevada at one time 
produced more silver than all the other 
states put together, and more gold than 
any other state in the Union. So many 
people moved there then that Nevada terri¬ 
tory became a state in 1864 ; and Virginia 
City, though in the midst of a desert, grew 
to be a thriving city. 

As the mines went deeper, hot water, with a tem¬ 
perature of 170°, poured in and caused the tempera¬ 
ture in the mines to be almost unbearable. Ice-cold 
air was forced in, and machinery and mules were 
made to do most of thd work ; but even then men 
fainted at their posts. Partly because of the diffi¬ 
culty of mining, and partly because of the failure to 


discover new bonanzas, some of the mines were 
abandoned and people drifted away, so that for a 
while the population of Nevada decreased. 

With the discovery of many rich new 
mining fields, and the re-opening of old 
mines, new towns have sprung up, and 
Nevada is again the center of great min¬ 
ing activity and one of our most important 
mining states. It is one of the leading 
states in the production of gold and silver. 
Tonopah, Goldfield, and Bullfrog are 
important and rapidly growing mining 
towns. These and other cities are now 
more important than Virginia City. 

At present Colorado produces more gold 
than any other state (Fig. 272), and it 
ranks fourth in the production 
of silver. In addition to these ^ In Golorado 
metals, Colorado produces much copper, 
lead, and iron. Among the mountains, one 
sees many mines (Fig. 166) ; but one of 
the most noted mining districts is near 
Leadville, a city at an elevation of over 
ten thousand feet above the sea. Gold, 
silver, and lead are mined in this locality. 

Another well-known mining camp in 
Colorado is Cripple Creek. A few years 
ago there was no town here, and the gold 
ore, which later proved so valuable, was 
not recognized as ore by the prospectors. 
Finally, when some one discovered the 
gold, thousands of people rushed in from 
all directions, and a city sprang up almost 
in a day. This has been true in many 
other places. Sometimes the cities have 
continued to grow, but if the mines have 
given out, the mining centers have been 
abandoned almost as rapidly as they grew. 

Iron is found in several of the Western 
States, but as yet it is not mined to a great 
extent except west of Pueblo, in Colorado. 

The western half of Montana is another 

noted mining section, and this state is now 

second in the production of 
., ■. i i • x i (3 ) In Montana 

silver and copper, while it also 

supplies much lead, gold, coal, and other 

mineral products, including precious stones. 

Helena has already been mentioned 



NORTH AMERICA 


138 


(p. 137), but no portion of the state is now 
so important for mining as the region in 
and near Butte (big. 182). There the 
principal metal is copper, although some 
gold and silver are mixed with the ore. 
More copper has been produced 
at the Butte mines than in any 
other mining district in the 
world. The mines are very 
extensive, reaching several 
thousand feet into the earth, 
and having tunnels through 
which one might wander for 
days without finding his way 
out. 

The mining industry of 
Arizona is also very impor- 

(4) In other tant, much cop- 
Western States per, silver, lead, 

and gold being produced. Ari¬ 
zona now ranks first among 
the states of the Union in the 
production of copper. One 
of the largest cities in the ter- 
ritory is Tucson (Fig. 167). 

Bisbee rivals Butte as a mining center. 
Much copper is also mined in Utah. There 
is much smelting at Douglas, and all 
these cities, as well as Phcenix, are trade 
centers for neighboring mines and irrigated 
farms. 

There is much mining, especially of gold, 
silver, copper, and lead, in each of the 


other Western States. California ranks 
second among our states in the production 
of gfold, Utah third in silver and lead, 
and Idaho second in lead and fourth in sil¬ 
ver. The Coeur d’Alene mining district 


of northern Idaho is the most important 
silver-lead district in the country. Spo¬ 
kane, in Washington, is the trade center 
for this noted mining region, which has 
had much to do with the remarkable and re¬ 
cent growth of this city. In addition to 
the metals mentioned, these states, as well 
as Wyoming and New Mexico, produce 



Fig. lf>6. — A view in the mining district of Victor, Colorado. There are 
mines beneath these buildings, and the waste rock removed from the 
tunnels form huge banks near them. 















THE UNITED STATES 


139 


large quantities of other valuable miner¬ 
als. There are many important mining 
towns and mining camps in each of these 
states. 

Coal, some of it of excellent quality, 
occurs in many sections of the West, being 
4 Coal petro- mined in almost all these states, 
leum, and other Colorado produces more than 
minerals a ny other Western state, rank¬ 

ing eighth among the states of the country 
in this production. Hut other Western 
States produce considerable amounts: among 
these Wyoming and Washington are next 
in importance to Colorado. Nearly every 
one of the Western States has coal beds 
which are bound to be of great value in the 
future. 

Petroleum is another valuable product in 
the West. Enormous quantities have been 
found in California, and that state now 
produces more than any other in the 
Union. So much is produced, in fact, that 
it is used on railway engines, in place of 
coal. 

There are many other mineral products 
in the Western States, including building 
stones and semi-precious stones, which are 
obtained in California, Arizona, Colorado, 
Utah, Nevada, and other states. 

Mining gives rise to much lumbering in 
many parts of the West. The Butte mines 
Lumbering alone consume millions of feet 

1. The special of lumber P er year. In the 
demand for mines heavy, upright timbers 
lumber are pi ace d together, on each 

side of a tunnel, to prevent the rock from 
caving in. Because of the great pressure 
upon them, timbers more than 'a foot 
through are often broken. 


While a great portion of the Western 
country is arid, the mountains and some 

2. Where it is of the hi S her plateaus bear 
obtained; also extensive forests. Thus the 
kinds of trees mines, which are usually 

among the high mountains, are generally 
supplied with little difficulty ; for the logs 
are easily brought down to them. 

The most noted lumber region, however, 


is on and near the western coast from cen¬ 
tral California northward. Mere, in the 
damp, equable climate, the giant redwood, 
Hr, cedar, and spruce trees grow to great 
size, the redwood being conhned to Cali¬ 
fornia, where there are extensive forests 
of these big trees (Fig. 198). There are 
immense forests of giant trees all the way 
from central California to Canada. While 
the logs in Maine and Michigan are rarely 
more than two or three feet through, many 
in Washington and Oregon are from six to 
fifteen feet in diameter, and some in Cali¬ 
fornia are very much larger. 


A visit to a lumbering camp in western Wash¬ 
ington will show that, owing to the size of the trees, 
and to the climate, the work is car¬ 
ried on very differently from lum- ?’ ^ ethod 0 * 
bering in Maine (p. 42). The men Um erm ^ 
are able to work both winter and summer. They 
select a tree, which perhaps towers upward for two 
hundred feet, that is, higher than most church 
steeples. Two men saw and chop at this tree until 
the giant begins to quiver, and when finally it falls, a 
wonderful sight may be seen. The tree bends slowly 
over, quickens its movement, then falls to the ground 
with a mighty crash, breaking good-sized trees in its 
way, as if they were twigs. 

After the branches are cut off, the tree is sawed 
into sections of different lengths (Fig. 168), as 
twenty-four, thirty-two, or forty-eight feet, and these 
are dragged to a railway which leads up into the 
forest. There the logs are piled upon flat cars and 
taken to the mills, a single section sometimes occu¬ 
pying an entire car (Fig. 169). From five to fif¬ 
teen thousand feet of lumber, or enough to build a 
small house, may be obtained from a single large 
tree (Fig. 170). 


Many of the logs go to Tacoma and Seat¬ 
tle, where there are enormous sawmills. 
There is such an abundance 4 whatisdone 
of wood that in some places with the logs 
thick planks are used for pav- and lumber 
ing the streets ; and wood is burned as a 
fuel in locomotives, and in the lumber mills. 
Such enormous quantities of lumber are 
obtained from these forests, and so cheaply, 
that it is sent even as far as the Atlantic 
coast. The Northwest is now one of the 
greatest lumbering regions in the country, 
and all the cities there have some share in 




140 


NORTH AMERICA 


the industry. Much lumber is sent away 
by boat from Portland and Astoria, 
but even more goes from the cities of 
Puget Sound. Besides Tacoma and 
Seattle, Everett and Bellingham are 
noted for their lumber industry. With so 


of timber will be preserved for use in the 
future ; for it is hardly fair that we should 
leave no timber for those who come after us. 
In addition, the forests are of value in pre¬ 
venting the rapid running off of the water 
in streams; thus they help to regulate the 



Fig. 168. — Lumbermen at work in the forest of Western Washington. Note in the foreground the donkey engine used 

for drawing logs. 


much lumber it is natural that there should 
be extensive manufacture of shingles, doors, 
and other wooden articles. 

A great deal of the forest of the West is 
on government land, and to prevent it from 
5. Forest res- being wasted, our government 
ervations has set apart what are called 

forest reserves (Fig. 266). That is, the for¬ 
est is kept, or reserved , bv the government, 
so that no one can cut down the trees 
without permission. In this way a supply 


supply of water for manufacturing, irriga¬ 
tion, and other purposes. 

Although there are few fishing banks 
along the western coast of the United States, 
there are some on which valua- . 
ble food fish are found. Other lshin & 
kinds of fish are caught along the coast, or 
are found swimming in the surface waters; 
and the oyster thrives in the shallow waters 
at the head of Puget Sound. 

Large numbers of cod and halibut are 












THE UNITED STATES 


141 





Fig. 1(59 — A train drawing lumber out of the forest of western Washington. Each section of a log occupies an 
entire car, and all the logs in the picture are parts of a single tree. 



caught on the banks and along the shores of 
British Columbia and Alaska, and many ves¬ 
sels go there, especially from Seattle. Not 
all the fish that are caught are eaten 
by the Western people ; some 
are shipped to other parts ^ 
of the country, even to 
Eastern cities. Fresh 
halibut, kept on ice 
in refrigerator cars, 
are sent from 
Seattle to many 
places in the 
E as t* 

The most im¬ 
portant fishing 
industry, how¬ 
ever, is that of 
salmon catching 

o 

This fish, like the 
shad of the East 
(p. 61), spends most 
of its life in the ocean, 
but passes up the rivers 
to spawn, or lay its eggs, 
in fresh water. As they 
are going toward and up 
the rivers, the salmon are 
caught in great numbers, 
and some are shipped away 
in ice, even across the con¬ 
tinent. Others are sent to the numerous 
factories at Astoria and other 


points along the lower Columbia, and to Bel¬ 
lingham and other points on Puget Sound, 
where they are packed in cans (Fig. 171). 

There is extensive farming in 
ashington and Oregon, east 
of the Cascade 
Ranges, one of 
le finest 


gon 


farming 


Agriculture 

1. In the North¬ 
west and Cali¬ 
fornia 


regions 
United 
This is 
wheat 


Fig. 170.— The end of a log cut 
from the forest of western 
Washington. You can see how 
large it is by the men standing 
in front of it. 


canning 


in the 
States, 
a noted 
country 
(Fig. 172), like 
the valley of 
the Red River 
of the North, 
and some of the 
farms are even 
larger than the one 
described on page 106. 
Mile after mile, in Ore- 
and Washington, are 
fields of waving grain, which, 
because of the very fertile soil, yield 
enormous crops. Hay, barley, corn, 
oats, fruits, vegetables, and farm 
animals are also raised. During 
the harvest season the air in most 
sections is so dry that both grain 
and hay may be left out of doors 
for weeks with little danger of being 
spoiled by rain. Walla Walla, Wash- 
















142 


NORTH A MEniCA 



Fig. 171. — luterior of a salmon cannery on the Columbia River. A salmon hangs from the roof ; and there are 

thousands of cans of salmon piled up on the floor. 


ington, Lewiston, Idaho, and Pendleton, 
Oregon, are situated in this great wheat 
region. 

Near the eastern base of the Cascade 
Ranges the climate is so dry that irrigation 
is necessary and there, as in the Yakima 
Valley, is found a wonderful fruit country. 
On the western side of the Cascade Ranges 
there is abundant rainfall and there fruit, 
vegetables, and grains, as well as hops, are 
extensively produced. The entire Pacific 
coast region, from Canada to Mexico, is 


famous for its excellent fruit. In the north 
berries, apples, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, 
and other fruits are produced ; but in the 
south, in the Great Valley of California 
(p. 153), besides these fruits there are groves 
of oranges, lemons, olives, and figs, as well 
as other trees which thrive only in warm 
climates. Sacramento, Stockton, and 
Fresno are the leading cities of the Great 
Valley, which, throughout its whole length, 
is occupied by a succession of wheatfields, 
vineyards, orchards, and nut and fruit 



I ig. 172. Cutting wheat iu a fertile farming district of the Western States. For this work tractors are used 

extensively. 




























THE UNITED ST A TES 


143 



Fig. 173. — An irrigating ditch near Denver. The water is led from a river, and by it the land, otherwise useless for 

agriculture, is made to yield rich harvests. 



groves; but in the central and southern 
portions, where the rainfall is light, irriga¬ 
tion is provided as described in a later sec¬ 
tion. California fresh fruit is shipped in 
enormous quantities to Eastern cities, while 


ture; but the only way in which farming 
is possible in most other parts of the West 
is by means of irrigation. 

The influence of irrigation is well illus¬ 
trated in the region near Denver, which 
lies in the midst of an arid 
plain. This plain 
is crossed, how¬ 
ever, 


2. In Colorado 
and Wyoming, 
by the by irrigation 


Fig. 174. — A farmer irrigating his field. The water from 
ditch is allowed to run along the furrows and thus wet 
have just been planted. 

dried and canned California fruits are to be 
found in most of our grocery stores. 

There are a few other, smaller sections 
where the rainfall is sufficient for agricul¬ 


Soutli Fork of (1) How irriga - 
the Platte River, tion is P lanned 

1 near Denver 
from which a 

ditch, as large as a canal, is 

led out upon the plain (Fig. 

173). The river itself has a 

rapid fall, but just enough 

slope has been given the ditch 

to allow the water to flow. 

Thus the ditch soon runs on a 

higher level than the river, 

and the land between it and 

the river is lower than the 

ditch. 

Water from the ditch may 
then be led out over these 
fields to irrigate them. For this purpose 
ditches branch off from the main canal, 
and each of these is divided and subdivided 
to supply farms along its course. When 


the irrigating 
the seeds that 

























144 


NORTH AMERTCA 


a field needs water, one of the smaller 
ditches is tapped and the field is flooded; or 
else the water is led into little furrows a few 
feet apart (Fig. 174). The method followed 
depends upon the kind of crop that is under 
cultivation. As there is danger that the sup¬ 
ply of water may not last through the sum¬ 
mer, reservoirs are built to store the water 
of the spring freshets ; and when needed, 
this is allowed to flow into the ditches. 


alfalfa. The latter, like clover and hay, is 
fed to stock. It is one of the most impor¬ 
tant crops of the arid regions, where there is 
much demand for fodder for cattle, hogs, 
sheep, and horses. 

Without irrigation, crops could not be 
grown in this vicinity. It would then be 
necessary to bring farm products from Kan¬ 
sas, Nebraska, and other states, a distance 
of several hundred miles. It is evident, 



Fig. 175. — An orange grove in southern California on land which not many years ago supported only the sparse 

vegetation of an arid climate. 


Of course such an arrangement is expen¬ 
sive, and each farmer must pay for his water 

... ^ ^ at a certain rate, as each tenant 

(2) Expense of . 

such irrigation, of a house in a city pays tor 
and its advan- hi s water or gas. That a 

farmer can afford to pay for 
water, however, is well shown in this case ; 
for on the upper side of the ditch, which 
cannot be reached by the water, the land is 
fit only for grazing, while on the lower side 
there are rich fields of grain, vegetables, and 


therefore, that irrigation must have had a 
great influence on the settlement of the 
West. Without it Denver and Pueblo 
would not be so important as they are ; and, 
because of the expense of carrying food so 
far, scores of mining towns would not exist. 
Wherever the waters of the rivers are led 
out over the fields, people form settlements, 
and even towns and small cities. That 
is the case at Greeley, in Colorado; 
Cheyenne and Laramie, the principal 













THE UNITED ST A TES 


145 


cities in Wyoming ; and scores of other 
places. 

One of the best farming districts in the 
arid lands is in Utah. A large part of that 
3. in Utah, by state was once a desert. But 
irrigation extensive areas have been en¬ 

tirely changed by the Mormons, a religious 
sect founded in New York, in 1830, by 
Joseph Smith. 

Under the leadership of Brigham Young 
these people migrated into the then un¬ 
known West and settled a few miles from 
Great Salt Lake. Here they commenced to 
build Salt Lake City, which is now one 
of the most beautiful cities in the country, i 
They also began to raise crops by irriga¬ 
tion, and to plant fruit trees, and thus con- ^ 
verted portions of the desert waste into 
beautiful gardens. 

There are now in Utah many who do 
not accept the Mormon religion. Agri¬ 
culture is no longer the sole industry. 
As you have already learned (p. 138), 
many rich mines have been opened in this 
state. There are numerous busy towns 
and cities, the one next to Salt Lake City 
in size being Ogden, which lies north of I 
the capital. 

Central and southern California is a third ; 
section noted for its extensive irrigation. 


4. In central 
and southern 
California, by 
irrigation 

(1) The climate 
here, and the 
method of irri¬ 
gation 


The region is far south, and 
its shores are bathed by warm 
ocean waters, so that the cli¬ 
mate is delightful. But the 
land, although very fertile, is 
arid by nature, and in places 
almost a desert (Fig. 165). 
Vapor condenses on the mountains, how¬ 
ever, and forms streams whose water is 
stored in immense reservoirs and led into 
long irrigating ditches. Other irrigating 
ditches are supplied with water from wells. 
The bringing of water to the parched soil 
has changed even the desert parts of this 
region into one of the garden spots of the 
world. The rainfall increases toward the 
north, and irrigation becomes less and less 
necessary as one goes northward. Thus 


there is every gradation in California, 
from farms, orchards, and vineyards that 
could not exist without irrigation, to 
those, already described, which require no 
irrigation. 

Oranges, lemons, peaches, pears, grapes, 

figs, olives, walnuts, almonds, and many 

other kinds of fruits and nuts, „ 

, *11 (2) The products 

now grow here m abundance. 

Among the fruits the most common is the 
seedless navel orange. In these beauti¬ 
ful valleys nearly every home has its orange 
trees, and in many cases the house is entirely 
surrounded by them (Fig. 175). 

Thousands of persons from the East were 
first attracted to California by the mild and 


healthful climate ; then, seeing the oppor¬ 
tunity for fruit raising, they planted orchards 
and orange groves. In those valleys which 
are too cool for oranges, thousands of acres 
are devoted to other fruits, such as prunes, 
apricots, grapes, pears, and apples. Land 
that a few years ago was worth, at best, 
only a few dollars an acre, now supports 
flourishing groves of fruit. 

The groves of all kinds are planted in 



Fig. 170. — An orange tree in southern California. Notice 
the snow on the mountain only a few miles away. 











14G 


NORTH AMERICA 




straight rows, and the ground 
is kept so clean by frequent 

(3) Care of the Pawing that 
fruit, and what scarcely a weed is 
is done with it ] )e seen . In 

this respect the groves present 
a very different appearance 
from the orchards, overgrown 
with grass and weeds, that are 
often seen upon farms of the 
East. 

The winter season is the har¬ 
vest time for oranges, which are 
picked from about the middle 
of November until February 
or later (Fig. 176). They 
are cut from the trees, sorted 
according to size, then packed 
in boxes and shipped away. 

Immense quantities of peaches, prunes, 
apricots, grapes, figs, and other fruits are 
dried, usually by exposure to the sun. In 
the Eastern States fruit would soon decay 
if left out of doors, but in the sunny cli¬ 
mate of the arid lands it dries quickly. 
Much fruit is also canned, and many grapes 
are made into wine. California wine is of 
such high quality that it is sent not only 
to the East, but even to Europe. 

The value of irrigation is well shown 
here. Before irrigation was introduced 
into southern California, this region could 


5. In other irri¬ 
gated sections 


Fig. 177. — Desert land in the Yakima Valley, covered with the worthless 
sagebrush. Such land without irrigation is of almost no value ; but 
compare this picture with Figure 178. 

support very few people. Now, in Los 
Angeles and vicinity, there is a population 
of over three hundred thousand. 

The description of these few places serves to show 
the importance of irrigation in the West. It is not 
to be understood, however, that these 
are the only noted irrigated sections, 
for there are many others. Most of 
the largest and best known are along the large riv¬ 
ers. For example, irrigation is extensive along the 
Yellowstone and Missouri rivers and their tributa¬ 
ries in Montana; along the Snake River and its 
tributaries in Idaho; along the Yakima River (Figs. 
177 and 178), and other streams tributary to the 
Columbia River in Washington, 
Oregon, and Idaho; along the Gila 
and Salt rivers in Arizona; along 
the Rio Grande and PeCos rivers in 
New Mexico; and along the Sacra¬ 
mento, San Joaquin and other rivers 
in California. The map (Fig. 258) 
shows that there are many irrigated 
sections. 


Fig. 178. — Desert land in the Yakima Valley which only a few years ago 
was covered with sagebrush like that in Figure 177. Now, being reached 
by an irrigation ditch, it supports a flourishing young peach and apple 
orchard and is worth $1000 an acre. 


The irrigation of Arizona deserves 
especial mention, partly because of 
the extensive irrigation works that 
the government has constructed 
there, and partly because of the 
climate. One of the greatest irriga¬ 
tion works undertaken is the Roose¬ 
velt dam in the Salt River, which 
supplies water for a large area 
near Phcenix. The climate near 








THE UNITED STATES 


147 


this city and Tucson is such that even semi-tropical 
fruits are produced. Here are raised oranges, 
lemons, grape fruit, figs, olives, pomegranates, and 
even dates. The warm, dry climate also makes this 
region an important health resort. 

So important is irrigation that it is being 
introduced wherever possible, and every 

6. Government y ear new irrigation systems 
work in irriga- are being built, some of them 
at great expense. Since much 
of the arid region is public land, the 
United States government is aiding in this 
work. There is, in fact, a special depart¬ 
ment of the government in charge of it, 


and every year millions of dollars are 
being spent in this way. 

Enormous dams are built (Fig. 179), 
forming large lakes in the mountain val¬ 
leys, and these are filled in spring when the 
snow melts. Then, in summer, when the 
crops need water, it is let out of the reser¬ 
voirs into the irrigation canals. In this 
way the amount of farm land in the arid 
West is being greatly increased. This is 
one of the most important works in which 
our government is engaged. 


There is so little rainfall in the arid 
portion of the West that only a small part 
of the land can be irrigated. 7 . Ranching 
This leaves most of the coun- (i) Kinds of 
try for grazing; and wherever animals raised 
there is water enough for the animals to 
drink, cattle, horse, and sheep ranches are 
found. In some parts, especially where 
the grass is scanty, herds of goats are 
raised. 

The manner in which cattle ranching is 
carried 011 in Dakota was de- (2) How gheep 
scribed on pages 112-114, and ranching is car- 
much the same plan is followed riedo>l 

for cattle and horses in all the 
Western States. Sheep ranch¬ 
ing is somewhat different, as 
may be seen from the ranches 
about Billings, Mont. 

A good-sized sheep ranch has 
from twenty-five thousand to forty 
thousand head of sheep. These, 
like cattle, may feed partly upon 
government land, or the “ range,” 
and partly on land fenced in and 
owned by the ranchman. During 
the coldest winter weather, when 
the snow may be so deep that the 
sheep cannot obtain food, they are 
often driven into protected corrals 
and fed on alfalfa. The fierce 
winds of the open plains help them, 
however, by drifting the snow and 
thus leaving open patches where 
they can find grass. 

When the sheep are feeding on 
the range, one man, with a dog 
(Fig. 180), can herd twenty-five 
hundred; and if he has a horse to 
ride, he sometimes takes care of five thousand. 
Selecting a spot near water for a camp, the herder 
drives his sheep out each morning, and back 
at night, going each day a distance of two or 
three miles from camp. When the grass is 
eaten in one place, the camp is moved; then, 
from the new point as a center, they w T ander out 
as before. 

The life of the herder is extremely lonely, both 
day and night being spent with the sheep. Once a 
week a man brings him food; and for weeks, and 
even months at a time, the only company he has, 
aside from his sheep, is his dog, and possibly his 
horse. 



Fro. 179. — A masonry dam built by the United States government, forming a 
large lake in which water is stored for use in irrigation during the summer. 










148 


NORTH AMERICA 


After the winter is over, the first income 
to the ranchman comes from the sale of the 
(3) Sources skins, or pelts, of sheep which 
of profit have died during the cold 

weather. He expects to lose about one 
sheep in twenty each year from this cause. 

The next harvest comes from the wool 
(Fig. 181). Men who make it their busi¬ 
ness to shear sheep travel in squads of 
about twenty-five. They erect sheds and 


pens near some sheep center, such as Bil¬ 
lings, and shear all the sheep that are 
brought to them. Sometimes sheep are 
sheared at the ranch, but many ranchmen 
prefer to drive them near to a market, 
before they are sheared. This saves the 
expense of hauling the wool to the rail¬ 
way station, and besides, the sheep graze 
on the way to and from the market. 

In the Southwestern States sheep are 
often 'sheared twice a year; but farther 
north it is done only once, and then as near 
the month of June as possible. Can you 
suggest a reason for choosing that time ? 
After the wool is cut, it is pressed into 


bales and shipped to various markets in the 
East. Where should you think it might 
be sent, and for what purposes used? 

From July on, many sheep are sold for 
mutton. Those that are from three to five 
years old, and that have already borne a 
quantity of wool, are usually selected for this 
purpose. The hides are useful for leather 
and the bones for fertilizing the soil. 

A newly settled country has little manu¬ 


facturing. Consequently many manufac¬ 
tured articles that are needed Manufacturing 
in the West must still be i. Extent of the 
brought from the East. As manufacturing 
in the Southern States, however, rapid 
changes have been going on, and the West 
is fast becoming an important manufactur¬ 
ing region. Already in some parts, as in 
Colorado and on the Pacific coast, there is 
a great deal of manufacturing. 

There is evfiry reason for believing that 
this progress will continue; for the West 
has great resources, including immense de¬ 
posits of coal and petroleum for fuel, as 
well as abundant water power. Further- 









THE UNITED STATES 


149 


more, the demand for manufactured articles 
is increasing, because many people are set¬ 
tling in this section. 


Fig. 181. — Shearing sheep in Montana. The men hold the 
sheep and the wool is clipped off by machinery. There 
is a great pile of this w r ool along the middle of the 
shed. 


I Western cities. The metals thus obtained 
are also manufactured into various articles 
in the larger cities. 

The manufacture of lumber and articles 
made of wood, such as paper, furniture, and 
farm implements, is already extensive in 
some places, and is rapidly increasing. 

As we have seen, the West is, to a large 
extent, a fruit and wheat region. On that 
account the canning and drying of fruits, 
and the making of flour and other products 
from wheat, are very important industries. 
The abundance of lish gives rise to the 
canning industry in certain places, and the 
great numbers of cattle and sheep supply 
hides and wool not only for shipment to 
Eastern factories, but also for manufacture 
in the West. 

The development of manufacturing in the 
West has been made possible largely by the 
building of railroads (Fig. Transporta- 
183). There is a remarkably tion of goods 
large number of railroads here, considering 
the difficulty of building them and the recent 
settlement of the country. On Figure 280 
observe that each of the great cities on the 
coast is connected by rail, not only with the 




One of the most extensive kinds of manu¬ 
facturing in the West consists in separating 
2. Principal the metal from the ores. After 
kinds the ore is taken 

from the mines, it must usu¬ 
ally be crushed, the worthless 
parts must be washed out, 
and the remainder sent to 
the smelters (Fig. 182), 
where the metal is extracted 
by a difficult process. The 
machinery for crushing and 
smelting is so expensive that 
ores from many mines are 
sent to one place, and must 
sometimes be carried a long 
distance. For example, the 
mines near Leadville send 
th ir ore to that city, but 
many mines in Colorado ship 
ore to the smelters at Denver and Pueblo. 

All the ores must be treated in some such 
way. Thus the crushing and smelting of 
ore is an important industry in many of the 


Fig. 182. — Mines in Butte, Montana. This city is the center of an important 

copper mining region. 


others, but also with the East by one or more 
transcontinental railways. Count the rail¬ 
roads that cross the Western States, and learn 
their names. When the Union Pacific, the 












150 


NORTH AMERICA 




first of these, was completed, in 1860, it was 
thought to be a wonderful work, and of enor- 
mous importance ; but now that there are so 
many railroads, people are inclined to over¬ 
look their great value. 

Railroads are of especial value in the 
interior of the West, where there is very 
little opportunity for transportation by 
water. The scarcity of navigable streams 
is partly due to the fact that the rivers are 
few and shallow, and partly to the fact that 
many of them descend rapidly to the sea, 
and therefore have rapids and falls that pre¬ 
vent navigation. Notable exceptions are the 
lower Sacramento and the Columbia, on which 
rivers boats carry an extensive commerce. 

Although harbors are not numerous, 
there are several excellent ones, sufficient 
to carry on traffic with all parts of the 
world. The importance of these ports has 
been greatly increased since the opening 
of the Panama Canal. Can you explain 
why ? 

Large inland cities in the Western States 
are few in number, partly because there 
Leading cities are no important waterways, 
in the interior There are, however, so many 
railways that some large cities have devel- 


Fig. 183. — A railroad in one of the canyons in the 
Rocky Mountains of Colorado. 

oped, especially at the junction of important 
trunk lines. 

The greatest of the interior cities is 
Denver, the capital of Colorado. This 
city is located 011 the site of a l. Denver and 
small mining camp, but its Colorado Springs 
growth is chiefly due to two 
facts: (1) the numerous min¬ 
ing towns among the moun¬ 
tains near by; and (2) the 
near presence of water, which 
has made irrigation on a large 
scale possible (p. 143). The 
first fact calls for an impor¬ 
tant trade and manufactur¬ 
ing center somewhere in that 
region, and the second makes 
it possible to secure food. 

Denver has now become a 
very important railway and 
manufacturing center, where 
ore is smelted, and machin¬ 
ery, flour, and cloth manu¬ 
factured. It is also of im¬ 
portance as a health resort, 
Fig. 184. — Pike’s Peak from the Garden of the Gods, near Colorado Springs. for the altitude of over five 









THE UNITED STATES 


151 



thousand feet and the dry climate are 

especially favorable to persons suffering 

from diseases of the lungs. Colorado 

© 

Springs, south of Denver, at the base of 


Fig. 185. — Blast furnaces and steel works at Pueblo, Colorado. 

Pike’s Peak (Fig. 184), is one of the lead¬ 
ing health resorts in the country. 

Pueblo, a trade and manufacturing 
center, is situated south of Denver, where 
the Santa Fe line meets the 
Denver and Rio Grande Rail- 


ated on the Spokane River at a point where 
there is a large waterfall (Fig. 186). This 
supplies abundant water power, 
so that there is much maim- 3 ‘ Spokane 

facturing. Since the city lies 
in the midst of the fertile 
wheat region of eastern Wash¬ 
ington, flour milling is of 
special importance, as at Min¬ 
neapolis. From the forests 
of Idaho it receives lumber, 
and, as already mentioned, it 
lias been greatly benefited by 
the rich mines of the near¬ 
by Coeur d’Alene district. 
Spokane is also an important 
railway center and distribut¬ 
ing point for a wide area of 
country. It has grown very 
rapidly, and is now second in 
size among the interior cities. 
Two other cities in the interior of Wash¬ 
ington are Walla Walla in the southeast 
and Yakima in the Yakima Valley. 

Some of the ore mined at 

BUTTE (Fig. 182) is Crushed conda^and Great 
and reduced in smelters Fails 



Fig. 186. — The fall in Spokane River at Spokane, Washington. 


way. Here much ore is smelted, and iron 
goods are manufactured (Fig. 185). It is 
the nearness to coal and iron ore which 
makes the latter industry possible. 

Spokane, in eastern Washington, is situ- 


within the city limits. But most of it 
is sent to the smelters at Anaconda, 
and many of the Montana ores go to the 
smelters at Great Falls. In the process 
of smelting, fumes of sulphur pour forth 













NORTH AMERICA 


52 



West 

Scaitlrf 


mfo .Rainier; 


Yuyet- 

So Hit ft 

r\w coH'inf 


ixJlavyn 


•vThfcyDalles 
't.Hjudf ) 


$ MUtS TO 0 N& I*»Cm 


MAPS 
O 10 . 


II MILE6 ro OKI 


t^farlinez 




AS ' Q.i*rtin 

■km Quentin" 


Men dot 


fel'nierrsity 
[£^f CulO -mis 

^ Berkeley* 


iausaliiv 


Oakland 


O'uWtii Unit 


Alameda 


N 

[.Redwood 


from tlie tall chimneys and settle to the 
ground, killing almost all vegetation, and 
causing the country round about to appear 
barren and desolate. In 
spite of their appearance, 
however, these smelting 
centers are thriving and 
rapidly growing. 

Several other interior 
cities, such as Salt Lake 

5. Other Cities C 1 T Y ,‘ Uld 
and towns in OGDEN,have 
the interior already been 

mentioned (page 145). 

Find others on the map. 

Most of these owe their 
importance chiefly to 
mining, farming by irri¬ 
gation, and grazing. 

Name the capitals of the 
Western States. Which 
of these have been 
mentioned, and in what 
connection? Locate 
Boise, the capital of 
Idaho, a city in the 
midst of a fertile irriga¬ 
tion district. 

The largest city in the 
Western States is San 

Leading cities FkANCISCO 
on the coast 

1. San Fran¬ 
cisco and cities 
near by 

(1) Names and 
locations of 
these cities 


and the center of large manufacturing and 
ship-building industries. Close to it is 
Berkeley (Fig. 187), the seat of the Uni- 


(Fig. 187), 
located on a 
remarkably 
fine harbor, 
at the tip of 
.the penin¬ 
sula that shuts in the 
waters of San Francisco 
Bay. This harbor, like 
that of New York, was 
formed by the sinking of 
the coast. There are 
other important cities 
near San Francisco, the largest being Oak¬ 
land, Berkeley, and Alameda. The for¬ 
mer, which is much the larger, is the land 
terminus of several transcontinental railways 


- 

T * - i" 

Flatter t/\ v 


to_china ' 
A NO iA PaV" 

A&tor 




Lttt 






2 


CHINA, .»>*« 
MtlUPMM II 


k k S \ 

Pi 

\ ^ U-w 

PtXoncep!iar^''>srr^TT^>/i 
Santa'-Barbara 


Los 


SANTA BA>B^RA 


ISLANDS 


200 


i, ,o 


San 


Fig. 187. — Map to show the location of San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, 

and Seattle. 


versity of California; and farther south is 
Stanford University. These are two of the 
most important universities in the West. 
There are others of note, however, for each 

























































THE UNITED STATES 


153 


of the Western States supports a state uni¬ 
versity. 

Southeast of San Francisco is San Jose; 
northeast of San Francisco, on the Sacra¬ 
mento River, is Sacramento, the capital of 
California; and east of San Francisco is 
Stockton, at the head of navigation on the 
San Joaquin River. Trace these rivers, and 
observe the extent of the fertile Great 
Valley through which they flow. 


leum is still another important industry, 
and brewing, distilling, and the manufacture 
of boots, shoes, and clothing are others. 
San Francisco, being by far the largest of 
the cities in this vicinity, leads in these 
industries. 

Not much coal is mined in California, 
but, since this state produces more petroleum 
than any other in the Union, there is an 
abundance of oil for fuel. Coal is easily 



Fig. 188. — The Golden Gate, as the entrance to San Francisco Bay is called. Outside is the open ocean, while within is 
a broad, deep bay, protected from winds and waves and making a port where the largest ships may safely anchor. 


The enormous crops of wheat, fruit, and 
wool in the Great Valley of California 
(2) Their suggest some of the occupa- 
manufactures tions in these cities. Among 
them are the canning of fruit, the milling 
of flour, and making of wine, and also of 
cloth. 

The mineral products in this region have 
led to much smelting, and to the manufac¬ 
ture of metal goods of various kinds. In 
and near San Francisco foundries and 
machine shops are numerous, and ship¬ 
building is a great industry. At Mare Is¬ 
land near Vallejo, north of San Francisco, 
there is an important navy yard (Fig. 187). 

Sugar refining is another prominent indus¬ 
try, the raw sugar being brought from the 
Hawaiian Islands. The refining of petro- 


brought by train and boat from the Wash¬ 
ington coal fields, and in the mountains 
there is an abundance of ivater power that 
can be used in generating electricity. 

San Francisco Bay (Fig. 188) is the only 
gap in the Coast Ranges for hundreds of 
miles, either to the north or ( 3 ) Their 
the south; and since it is one skipping 
of the finest harbors in the world, it is very 
important as the outlet to the Great Val¬ 
ley and the mining regions round about it. 
The principal products shipped from here 
are gold, silver, wine, fruit, wool, grain, 
and the various manufactured goods just 
named. Some go East by rail, but many 
go by boat to different parts of the world. 
Several transcontinental railways terminate 
on the shores of San Francisco Bay. For 







154 


NORTH AMERICA 


all these reasons this is a great shipping 
point, and, as our trade increases with the 
Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, 
China, and other countries bordering the 
Pacific, the amount of shipping will in¬ 
crease. 

Many goods are sent from Stockton, Oak¬ 
land, and other points on or near the bay; 
but San Francisco is the leading center for 
the shipping, as for the manufacturing. 


has had such a rapid growth that it is now 

the second city in size in the Western States 

The first large city north of San Francisco 

is Portland (Fig. 187) on the \\ illamette 

River, a tributary of the Co- 3 Coastcities 

lumbia. Like New Orleans, it north of San 

is situated about a hundred Francisco 

miles from the ocean, near the (*) Portland 
„ , . and vicinity 

head of deep-water navigation. 

Since good harbors having connections 





dUi I 


. •. 1 


W i% 

r WmHm 



Fig. 189. — A street in Los Angeles bordered by palms and other warm-climate trees. 


The next important harbor south of San 
Francisco is the port of Los Angeles, twenty 

2. Coastcities miles from L ° S ANGELES it- 
south of San self, where a fine artificial har- 
Francisco bor ] ms b een ma de at great 

expense. Still farther south is the fine 
natural harbor of San Diego. Estimate 
the distance of these points from San Fran¬ 
cisco (Fig. 187). 

Los Angeles is one of the most beautiful 
cities in the country (Fig. 189). It lies in 
the midst of the rich orange country (Fig. 
175), and there are scores of small villages, 
towns, and cities round about it. Among 
the larger of these are Pasadena, Pomona, 
Riverside, Redlands, and San Bernar¬ 
dino. Los Angeles is the chief distribu¬ 
ting center for this productive region. It 


with the interior are lacking, most of the 
other important towns of Oregon are inland, 
and Portland has grown to be the chief ship¬ 
ping point by water, and therefore the largest 
city in the state. From this point wheat, 
flour, fruits, wool, and lumber (Fig. 190), the 
leading products of Oregon, are shipped in 
great quantities. 

Portland has extensive manufactories of 
woolen goods, flour, and furniture; and 
Salem, the capital, situated in the fertile 
Willamette Valley, also has large woolen 
and flour mills. Farther down the Colum¬ 
bia is Astoria, where, as elsewhere along 
the river, the salmon industry is developed. 
It is also an important shipping point. 

Portland, one of the most beautiful cities 
in the West, is growing rapidly in industry, 











THE UNITED STATES 


155 



commerce, and population, its recent growth 
being most remarkable. It lias an exten¬ 
sive and increasing trade with the Orient, 
and there is also important commerce with 
Alaska. Portland is one 
of the great lumber ports 
in the world, and one of 
the leading wheat and 
flour shipping points on 
the Pacific coast. 

Washington, unlike 
Oregon, has many fine 

(2) Cities on harbors. 

Puget Sound Oil two of 

these Seattle and 
Tacoma (Fig. 187) are 
situated. Coal, lum¬ 
ber, grain, and hops are 
the principal exports. 

There is also extensive 
manufacture of lumber, furniture, and other 
goods along the shores of Puget Sound, 
especially at Seattle (Fig. 191), and Ta¬ 
coma. These goods are shipped to the 
Eastern cities, to China, Japan, the Philip¬ 
pines, Alaska, and other countries. Bel¬ 
lingham and Everett on Puget Sound, 


is an important ship building yard at 
Seattle, in which many ships have recently 
been built; the largest salmon cannery in 
the world is located at Bellingham; and 


there is much other manufacturing. In- 
deed, the rapid development of manufac¬ 
turing in the cities of Puget Sound has 
been one cause for their great growth and 
prosperity. 

The cities of Puget Sound, especially 
Seattle, have the bulk of the trade with 


Fig. 190.— A raft of logs floating down the Willamette River to the sawmills at 
Portland, which is seen in the distance. 



Fig. 191. — A view of a part of Seattle from the harbor. 


though smaller, have important lumber and 
other industries. There is a large smelter 
at Tacoma, to which ores are sent from 
even as distant a point as Alaska; there 


Alaska, as well as much commerce with the 
Orient, to which steamers ply regularly 
from Seattle. To these Puget Sound ports 
most of the gold, salmon, and other Alaskan 















156 


NORTH AMERICA 


products come, and from tliem the regular 
Alaskan steamers sail, carrying many miners 
and other passengers, and large cargoes of 
goods for use in that Northern territory. 
Seattle is the place of outfitting for most of 
the- people who go to Alaska; and the rapid 
development of that territory lias brought 
much business to this city, whose recent 
growth has been remarkable. Both Tacoma 
and Seattle are beautifully situated on the 
shores of Puget Sound, and from both the 
extinct volcano, Mount Rainier, is plainly 
visible. There are many fine public build¬ 
ings in each city, and in Seattle is the 



this warm climate, wheat, corn, vegetables, 
alfalfa, apples, peaches, grapes, and many 
other crops are raised. While i. Their re- 
some of the farming is carried sources 
on by Mexicans and Indians, best results 
are gained by Americans who own a large 
part of tlie irrigated land. The United 
States government is spending large sums 
of money in building storage reservoirs, 
and in improving the irrigation systems in 
other ways, so that many settlers are find¬ 
ing valuable farm lands here. 

The plateaus and mountain valleys are 
the seats of extensive cattle and sheep 

ranching, and, as we have 
already learned, mining 
is of great importance. 
Arizona, besides being 
second in the production 
of copper, also produces 
large amounts of gold 
and silver, while New 
Mexico supplies much 
gold, silver, and coal. 

The cities, though not 
of great size, are impor¬ 
tant distrib- 


Fig. 192. — A street in a small town in New Mexico, with adobe houses belonging 

to the Mexican inhabitants. 


ut ing centers 


2. Their cities 


University of Washington, one of the most 
rapidly growing and progressive state uni¬ 
versities of the West. 

Another Pacific coast port is Grays Harbor, at 
the mouth of Chehalis River in Washington, west 
of the capital Olympia. Transcontinental rail¬ 
roads have extended their lines to it, and there is 
already trade in lumber and grains with the Orien¬ 
tal ports. 

When this Western country was first 
settled, it was divided into territories, but 
Our newest as the population increased, 
states these territories have one by 

one been admitted into the Union as states. 
The last to be admitted were Arizona and 
New Mexico in 1912. 

There are many fertile valleys in these 
new states where there is irrigation ; and, in 


for the surrounding 
country, and also centers 
for smelting the ores. Among the most 
important are Tucson, Prescott, Bisbee, 
and Phcenix in Arizona, and Albuquer¬ 
que, which is the largest city in New 
Mexico. 

Among the early Spanish settlements is Santa 
Fk, the capital of New Mexico. Here, as elsewhere, 
in the state, the houses are mostly low, one-story 
buildings (Fig. 192) made of sun-dried bricks, or 
adobe. The Spanish language is most commonly 
heard, and in some parts one still sees the primitive 
customs of a century ago. For instance, on the 
small Mexican farms near by, wheat, instead of 
being threshed out by machines, is in some cases 
spread upon the ground and trampled by goats until 
the grain is separated from the hull. The grain is 
then tossed into the air in order that the wind may 
carry- away the chaff. These customs form a very 
striking contrast to those introduced into most parts 
of the region by progressive Americans, who use the 








THE UNITED STATES 


157 



3. Their Indian 
inhabitants 


most approved methods of farming and the best of 
farming implements. 

This is the region in which some of the most civ¬ 
ilized Indians once lived (p. 26) ; and here some 
of their descendants still occupy In¬ 
dian reservations, or land reserved 
for them by the government. The 
Pueblo Indians, for instance, still live here after the 
manner of their ancestors. Their homes, called 
pueblos, are built of adobe, and in some cases are 
entered from the roof by means of a ladder (Fig. 67). 

The pueblos wei-e intended as strongholds for 
the storing of grain and for protection against 
wandering tribes, which might attack 
them at any time. Other Indian 
houses, the cliff dwellings, were built 
on the sides of cliffs beneath over¬ 
hanging ledges; and still others, 
care dwellings, were in caves dug- 
out of the rocks by the Indians (Fig. 

193). 

Some of the Pueblo Indians carry 
on farming by irrigation, as their 
ancestors did before the white men 
came; and many of them are pros¬ 
perous farmers. Other Indians on 
reservations are more shiftless, and 
the government has to help them to 
make a living. The same is true of 
Indians in other parts of the West, 
for there are Indian reservations in 
all the Western States. The red 
men are no longer allowed to roam 
at will, but must live on the land 
allotted to them by the United 
States government. 


the Yellowstone National Park, the Grand 
Canyon of the Colorado River, and the 
Yosemite National Park. 

The Yellowstone Park, chiefly in Wyo¬ 
ming, is a tract of land, larger than Connect¬ 
icut, which the government 
has set aside as a national park. 

It is often called the “ Won¬ 
derland of America.” A stage 
road leads from the Northern 
Pacific Railway to the Mammoth Hot 


2. The Yellow¬ 
stone Park 

(1) Its hot 
springs and 
geysers 


Fig. 193. —The cave dwellings of the southwest. The Indians dug these 
caves out of the solid rock aud lived in them. 


In many places among the 
Western mountains are scenes 

Scenery in the that compare 
West favorably with those of the 

l. The most Alps, which attract so many 
noted places Americans abroad. Strangely 
formed cliffs, deep canyons, and imposing 
waterfalls are present without number. 
There are also beautiful snow-capped vol¬ 
canic cones and glaciers. Many of these 
grand scenes may be viewed from the rail¬ 
way, as, for instance, the wonderful gorges 
and canyons through which the Denver and 
Rio Grande Railway winds its way across 
Colorado. Among all the interesting places 
in the West, however, are three that easily 
surpass the others in grandeur. These are 


Springs on the northern side of the park. 
There is also a stage route from the Oregon 
Short Line on the western side. At the 
Hot Springs from openings in the hillside, 
heated water flows down over beautifully 
colored terraces, which have been built by 
a deposit of mineral matter carried in solu¬ 
tion in the hot water. Farther on are boil¬ 
ing springs; also boiling mud springs of 
different colors; and here and there is a 
spring, called a geyser, from which hot water 
and steam now and then burst forth with 
great violence, even to a height of one hun¬ 
dred or two hundred feet (I ig. 194). 






158 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 194. — “ Old Faithful ” geyser in eruption. 

“Old Faithful,” one of the most regular of these 
geysers, “plays” at intervals of sixty-five minutes. 
Then a column of steam and hot water shoots up¬ 
ward from one hundred to one hundred and thirty 
feet. Other geysers discharge at much longer peri¬ 
ods, as two to three hours, or several days; and in 
some of the geysers the roar of escaping steam lasts 
for hours after the water has all been expelled. The 
outbursts are really explosions of steam, the heat 
being supplied from the depths of the earth. Some 
of the springs are on a level with the ground, so 
that, a visitor must be on the lookout lest he step 
into one; others are surrounded by a rim several 
feet high. 

Beyond the geyser basins the Yellow- 
(2) IIS lake stone Lake is readied, a beauti- 
faiis, and ful sheet of water, nestled in 
canyon the mountains, nearly eight 

thousand feet above the sea. Its waters 


flow northward, forming the Yellowstone 
River, a tributary of the Missouri. 

To many persons, the falls and canyon of this 
river are the greatest wonders of the park. Soon 
after leaving the lake, the stream narrows and 
quickens, and the water leaps one hundred and nine 
feet directly downward. A short distance farther 
on it tumbles three hundred and eight feet, or almost 
twice the height of Niagara (Fig. 195). The river 
then runs between steep walls, which rise one thou¬ 
sand feet above it. This canyon is somewhat wind¬ 
ing, with numerous bold cliffs jutting far out into 
the abyss; and from these cliffs grand views may be 
obtained. Far below, one sees the silvery stream, 
too distant to be heard as it dashes along. Across 
the chasm, a half mile away, dark green pines fringe 
the bank, and between the w'ater and these woods 
are gorgeously colored rock walls, having all the tints 
of the rainbow. 

In this park hunting is prohibited, and for that 

reason wild animals are numerous T . 

, ., , ,, n ... (3) Its animals 

and quite tame. \\ hen driving 

through the park one can sometimes see elk by the 



Fig. 195. — The great falls of the Yellowstone, three 
hundred and eight feet high. 











THE UNITED STATES 


159 



The remarkable Yosemite Valley, on the 
western slope of the Sierra Nevada Moun¬ 
tains, in California, presents 4 . The Yosemite 
very different views from those Park 
just described. This is the region of the 
High Sierras, a region of deep canyons and 
granite peaks, one of which, Mount Whit¬ 
ney, 14,502 feet high, is the highest point 
in the United States, not including Alaska. 
Some of the most magnificent views in the 
High Sierras are formed by waterfalls of 
the Yosemite Creek and Merced River, in 
Yosemite Park. In one mighty leap the 
water descends fifteen hundred feet, form¬ 
ing the Yosemite Falls (Fig. 197), which 


The difficult path which leads 
to the bottom of the canyon is 
seven miles long, and the trip Pm. 196, 

down and back is a full day’s 
journey; but without making it, one fails to ap¬ 
preciate fully the marvelous carving, sculpturing, 
and coloring of the canyon walls. At the bottom 
the scene is entirely changed; and, as one looks 
upward, to see himself shut in by walls which seem 
to extend to the very heavens, his own littleness 
and the immensity of the works of Nature, are 
wonderfully impressed upon him. 

For three hundred miles the Colorado River flows 
at the bottom of this deeply cut canyon, which forms 
a very complete barrier to travelers. A person living 
on one side, where he could see across to the other 
side, .ten miles away, would need to travel hundreds 
of miles to reach that side ; for there are no railways, 
roads, or paths leading across. The government has 
set aside this wonderland also as a national park for 
the enjoyment of the people. 


— Bison feeding in the Yellowstone National Park. 


are famed the world over. Below this are 
some cascades, then another fall of four 
hundred feet. 

Only a few miles from the falls are the giant 
trees of the world, the largest of which is 35 feet 
in diameter (Fig. 198) and 300 feet high. The 
Yosemite region, like the Yellowstone, is a public 
park, and is visited every year by thousands of 
people, including many Europeans. 

It would require a great many pages to describe 

all the wonderful scenes in Western United States, 

or even to make a list of them. But 

, , , j- . 1 , 5. Other scenic 

mention must be made ot the grand won(Jers 

Shoshone Falls in Idaho, Lake Che¬ 
lan in Washington, Lake Tahoe in the Sierra Ne- 
vadas, and Crater Lake in Oregon — the great crater 


roadside; and bears, both grizzly and black, come 
close to camps and hotels for food. There are many 
other animals here, among them some bison, or 
buffalo (Fig. 196). 


One portion of the Grand Canyon of the 
Colorado, in Arizona, maybe reached on the 
3. The Canyon Atchison, 1 opeka, an<l Santa 
of the Colorado Fe Railway. The wonderful 
River Yellowstone Canyon, just de¬ 

scribed, and the canyons on the Denver 
and Rio Grande in Colorado are pygmies 
compared with this. 


As one first looks out into the canyon, he 
sees nothing but rock towers, pinnacles, 
many colored layers of rock, 
and apparently bottomless 
depths. When he finally 
reaches a point from which 
the threadlike stream may be 
spied at the bottom of the 
abyss, a mile below, it seems 
almost impossible that so little 
water could have wrought 
such mighty havoc. . Yet 
this river has been slowly 
cutting its way into the rocks 
for thousands of centuries, 
and this great gash, or can¬ 
yon, is the result. 






160 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 197. —The Yosemite Valley, bordered by lofty granite precipices, over one portion of which the water leaps 

to form the far-famed Yosemite Falls. 



of an extinct volcano in 
now situated. Also the 
the slopes of Mount 
Rainier with its beauti¬ 
ful valleys, large glaciers, 
and grand mountain 
scenery. 

1. Tell about the dis¬ 
covery of gold in Cali- 

. f o r n i a. 

Review 0 „ r , , 

i . licit 

Questions 

x were the 

effects of this discovery? 

3. Name and locate the 
three principal moun¬ 
tain systems in the West. 

4. Describe the valleys 
between. 5. Where are 
volcanoes found ? Of 
what importance is the 
lava? 6. What about 
the extent of the arid 
lands? 7. Where are 
the well-watered sec¬ 
tions? State some facts 
about them. 8. What 


which a beautiful lake is 
Rainier National Park on 


Fig. 198. — One of the “Big Trees” of California — so 
large that a wagon road passes through a tunnel cut 
in its trunk. 


minerals are found here, and what about the owner¬ 
ship of the mineral lands? 9. Describe the three 

methods of gold mining. 
10. What can you tell 
about noted mining dis¬ 
tricts in Nevada? 11. In 
Colorado? 12. In Mon¬ 
tana ? 13. In other "West¬ 
ern States? 14. Where 
are coal and petroleum 
found? 15. What use 
is made of timber in the 
mines ? 16. Where is 

the timber obtained, and 
what are the principal 
kinds of trees? 17. De¬ 
scribe the method of 
lumbering in Washing¬ 
ton. 18. What is done 
with the logs and with 
the lumber from them? 
19. Of what importance 
are the forest reserva¬ 
tions? 20. What kinds 
of fish are caught, and 
where ? 21. What do 

you know about agricul- 







THE UNITED ST A TES 


161 


ture in the well-watered Northwest? 22. How is 
irrigation planned near Denver? 23. What about 
the expense of such, irrigation, and its advantages? 
24. What do you know about agriculture by irriga¬ 
tion in Utah? 25. In southern California ? 26. In 
other sections? 27. IIow is the United States 
government assisting in irrigation in the West? 

28. How is sheep ranching carried on here ? 

29. What are the different sources of profit in that 
business? 30. What is the extent of manufacturing 
in the AVest? 31. Name the principal kinds of 
manufacturing. 32. What are the conveniences for 
transportation of goods ? 33. State the principal 
facts about Denver and vicinity. 34. Pueblo. 
35. Spokane. 36. Butte, Anaconda, and Great Falls. 
37. Other cities and towns in the interior. 38. Name 
and locate the principal cities about San Francisco 
Bay. 39. What goods are manufactured in them? 
40. What about the shipping at this point ? 41. State 
the important facts about the coast cities south of 
San Francisco. 42. About Portland and vicinity. 
43. About the cities on Puget Sound. 44. Name 
our two newest states, and tell about their re¬ 
sources. 45. Name and locate their principal cities. 
46. What can you tell about their Indian inhab¬ 
itants? 47. Name and locate the places in the 
West most noted for scenery. 48. Describe Yellow¬ 
stone Park. 49. The Canyon of the Colorado River. 
50. The Yosemite Park. 


Montana (Mont.). 1. What industries are car¬ 
ried on in the eastern part? Why? 2. In the 
. western part? 3. Name the chief 

eview Ques c ities in Montana, and tell how each 

tions by States . . , , . , , , 

J is important. 4. W hat two large 

rivers drain this section ? 5. Through what states 

do they flow before reaching the Gulf? 6. Draw 
an outline map of the state and, as each of the other 
states is studied, do the same for that. 

Wyoming (Wv.). 7. What industries are carried 

on in this state? 8. What cities are mentioned? 
In what connection? 9. Find the Yellowstone Park, 
and tell for what it is noted. 10. This state is rep¬ 
resented as having little grain, on the maps show¬ 
ing the principal grain-producing regions (Figs. 249 
and 251). Why? 

Colorado (Col. or Colo.). 11. Examine Figures 
249 to 274 to see what are the industries of Colorado. 
12. Why is there more water for irrigation in this 
state than in some of the others? 13. Trace the 
divide between the Pacific and Atlantic drainage, 
as it crosses Colorado. Trace it northward to Can¬ 
ada and southward to Mexico. 14. Name the cities 
in Colorado mentioned in the text, and tell how each 
is important. 15. Find the population of Denver 
(Appendix, p. 454). Compare it with that of other 
large cities in the Western States; also with that of 
New Orleans and of Buffalo. 

New Mexico (N.M.). 16. What about the in¬ 


habitants? 17. What is said about the industries? 

18. I low large is the largest city (Appendix, p. 454) ? 

19. Compare it as to population with the largest 
city in Massachusetts; in Nevada. 

Arizona (Ariz.). 20. What can you tell about 
the large river that crosses Arizona? 21. What 
cities and industries are mentioned? 22. What 
minerals are obtained here? 23. IIow does the 
largest city compare in size with the largest in New 
Mexico? In Colorado? 24. Find the population 
of Arizona. Of New Mexico. 

Nevada ( Nev.). 25. For what mines was Nevada 
famous? 26. Find its present population (Appen¬ 
dix, p.452). Why are there so few people ? 27. What 
about its present industries? 28. How may the 
government irrigation work be of special value to this 
state ? 

Utah. 29. Why is the Great Salt Lake salt? 

30. What are the industries of this state ? 31. What 
cities are mentioned? Tell about each. 32. Exam¬ 
ine the maps, Figures 249 to 274, to see what prod¬ 
ucts come from Utah. 

Idaho (Ida.). 33. What metals are obtained? 

(See Figs. 263 to 278.) 34. What great river drains 
Idaho? 35. What mountain range forms the east¬ 
ern boundary ? 

Washington (Wash.). 36. Compare the coast line 
with that of Oregon ; of Maine. 37. What about 
the rainfall of this state? Compare it with that of 
Montana (Fig. 303). Why this difference? 38. What 
effect has the rainfall upon the industries? What 
are the principal industries? 39. AVhat cities are 
mentioned in the text? What can you tell about 
each ? 

Oregon (Ore.). 40. What advantage do you see 
in the location of the largest city ? 41. Compare it 
in size with Denver; New Orleans. 42. Examine 
the maps (Figs. 249 to 274) to see what is produced 
in Oregon. 43. AA 7 hat industries are mentioned in 
the text? 44. AVhat cities are mentioned, and in 
what connection ? 

California (Cal.). 45. What about the rainfall? 

46. AVhat two rivers drain most of this state? 

47. Describe the relief. 48. Name the cities men¬ 
tioned ; for what is each important? 49. AVhat 
industries are found in this state? 50. AVhat 
advantage do you see in the location of San Fran¬ 
cisco? 51. Compare its population with that of 
Boston; Denver. 52. AVhat caused the early 
growth of California? AATiat effect has that had on 
other AVestern States ? 

53. Which state has the largest population (Ap¬ 
pendix, p.452)? The smallest? 54. Compare each of 

these two with Massachusetts and , _ . 

-kt ~\r i * , cl- -kj „ General Review 

New Fork m population. 5o. -Name 

and locate the eight largest cities ^ 

(Appendix, p. 454). 56. AVhich of the five groups 

of states has the densest population (Fig. 246)? 



162 


NORTH AMERICA 



Which the least dense? What reasons can you 
give? 

1. Read about the expedition of Lewis and Clark 
from St. Louis to the Pacific coast in 1803-1806. 

2. Find out about the early settle- 
Suggestions ment aU( j dispute about the owner¬ 
ship of Oregon. 3. What is the origin of the 
expression “to pan out”? 4. hy do the heavier 
rains on the northern Pacific coast come in win¬ 
ter? 5. Mention several of the advantages and 
disadvantages of having no rain for several months 
at a time, as in southern California. 6. Make a 
collection of minerals for the school. 7. Hydraulic 
mining has been largely prohibited in many parts 


nets. 4. For manufactured articles. 5. Name the 
ten largest cities in their order (Appendix, p. 453). 
For what is each important? 6. State some ways 
in which the rainfall influences the occupations of 
the people. 7. The temperature. 8. State clearly 
the influence of the sinking of the coast. 9. Of the 
glacial period. 10. Of the coal period. 11. Of the 
absence of forests on the prairies. 12. Of the rich 
mineral deposits in the West. 13. In what ways 
have the (beat Lakes been of value? 14. Name 
some of the cities that have been benefited by them. 
15. In what ways have the Mississippi River and its 
two largest tributaries been of value? 16. State 
some of the natural advantages that have aided the 
growth of Boston; New York; Buffalo; Philadel¬ 
phia; Baltimore; New Orleans; 
Cleveland; Pittsburgh; Detroit; 
Chicago; St. Louis; and San Fran¬ 
cisco. 17. Can you name some 
other cities that have also been 
influenced by their surroundings? 
18. Which is the largest state 
(Appendix, pp. 452-453) ? The 
second in size? The smallest? The 
next to the smallest? 19. Which 
state has the largest population 
(Appendix, p. 452)? The second 
largest? The smallest? Next to 
the smallest? 20. What states 
border Mexico? Canada? Draw a 
map of the United States. 


_At the close of the Revo- 

Fig 199.—Scene after a winter snowstorm on the Alaskan coast. lutioiUll'V War the L llited 


of the West. Why? 8. Should the ditch that is 
to irrigate a certain field skirt its upper or lower 
edge? Why? 9. Which is the more easily irri¬ 
gated, nearly level land, or land that is rough and 
hilly? Why? 10. Is southern California as liable 
to cold snaps as Florida? Why? 11. Make a list 
of articles made of w T ool. 12. In what year were 
Arizona and New Mexico admitted into our Union 
as states? 13. Write a story describing an imagi¬ 
nary visit to southern California. 14. Make a 
drawing of the Western States, putting in the prin¬ 
cipal mountain ranges, rivers, and cities. 

1. Name the principal crops of the United States, 
and tell in which section each is 
General Review raised. (Consult figures 249 to 
Questions for 259.) 2. Do the same for mineral 

United States products. 3. For other raw prod- 


States consisted of thirteen 
small colonies, extending along Our increase 
the Atlantic coast from Maine of territory 
to Georgia. Our new nation laid claim 

<78 

also to the hand far into the wilderness, 
even to the distant Mississippi. Beyond 
this was French and Spanish territory, 
while the whole Mississippi Valley was oc¬ 
cupied by Indians. 

By purchase, by war, and by treaty, we 
have gained possession of all the other land 
between the Atlantic and the Pacific, which 
has thus far been described ; but our con¬ 
trol does not end with the boundaries of 
the United States proper. In 1867 we ob- 


IV. Territories and 
Dependencies of the 
United States 







o 

o 

O 
































































164 


NORTE AMERICA 


How obtained 
and how the 
purchase was 
regarded 


tained Alaska. In 1898 Hawaii was an¬ 
nexed as a territory and the Philippine Is¬ 
lands came under our control. In 1903 we 
acquired the Panama Canal zone (p. 154). 
In 1917 the Virgin Islands were purchased 
from Denmark. These dependencies should 
be studied at this point. 

i. Alaska 

For a long time Alaska, which is more 
than twice as large as Texas, belonged to 
Russia. In 1867 that nation 
sold the territory to us for 
$7,200,000. At the time many 
people thought it very unwise 
to pay so large a sum for so distant and des¬ 
olate a land. However, 
it has already proved of 
great value, and has 
paid for itself many 
times over. 

Since the Arctic Circle 
crosses the northern part 
of Alaska, 
it will be 
seen that the climate of 
much of the territory 
must be severe. The 
winters are long and 
cold, and the summers 
short and cool. 

A strip of coast land 
extends southeastward from the main penin¬ 
sula of Alaska, and to this the west winds 
bring an abundance of rain and snow (Fig. 
199). Since these winds blow from the 
ocean, they make the winters much warmer 
than in the northern part of the territory. 

A large part of Alaska is mountainous, 


ing Sea, are really a growing mountain chain 1600 
miles in length. Altogether there are 57 volcanoes 
in this chain, some of them still active ; and all along 
the Alaskan coast earthquakes are frequent, because 
the mountains are still rising. 

The snows are so heavy that most of the 
mountains are snow-covered throughout 
the year (Fig. 201) ; and hun¬ 
dreds of glaciers descend 
through the mountain valleys, some even 
entering the sea and breaking off to form 
icebergs. The largest glaciers on the con¬ 
tinent are found in this section. One of 
the best known of these, the Muir Glacier, 
is located not far north of Sitka. 

There are so many islands along the coast 


2. The scenery 


The climate 



Fig. 201. — The snow-capped mountains near Mount Saint Elias, Alaska. In the 
middle of the picture is a glacier which descends to the sea, discharging icebergs 
from a cliff over a mile and a half long and 250 feet high. 


for the mountain ranges of the United States 

Surface of 
the land 


1. Extent of 
the mountains 


and western Canada extend 
northward into this territory. 
Among these mountains are 
the loftiest peaks of the con¬ 
tinent, the highest being Mount McKinley, 
which is 20,300 feet high. 

The long peninsula and the chain of Aleutian Is¬ 
lands, which form the southern boundary of Ber- 


that, for a thousand miles, the steamers 
sail between lofty, forest-covered mountain 
walls, with snow-capped peaks in the back¬ 
ground, and upon waters whose surface is 
as quiet as a lake. It is one of the most 
wonderful ocean voyages in the world, and 
the reason being that the sinking of the 
land has allowed the sea to enter the branch¬ 
ing mountain valleys, changing them to 
long, narrow arms of the sea, or fiords , as 
similar inlets are called in Norway. 

Among the resources of 
Alaska, as in the case of other 


Present thriv¬ 
ing industries 


far Northern lands, those of j Fishing 
the sea are especially impor- a) catching of 
tant. On the shallow banks, foodjish 






TERB1T0HIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 


165 


and along the coast, are many cod and 
halibut, for which vessels now go from 
Seattle and ports further south. These 
fish are caught in large quantities, some 
being sold even in the Eastern States. 


Every year, steamers, specially built for the pur¬ 
pose, venture into the Arctic Ocean through Bering 
Strait in search of the whale. Few ships are now 
engaged in this dangerous occupation, for the whale 
is much less common than formerly. The ships are 
obliged to push their way into the fine ice, in which 
they are in danger of being crushed 
by the pressure of the ice, as it is 
moved about by the current. 

Men take all these risks in order 
to secure the valuable whalebone 
that grows in the whale’s mouth. 
This bone has a coarse, hairlike 
fringe on its margin which serves 
to strain out of the waiter the small 
sea animals on which the huge 
monster feeds. Another product is 
the blubber, or layer of fat, that lies 
beneath the skin and keeps the 
whale warm even in the waters of 
the frozen Arctic. This blubber is 
made into oil. In recent years whale 
meat has found a place among our 
common foods. 



Fig. 202. — Picture of a whale, the largest of animals. 



Still more important, at present, is sal¬ 
mon fishing. Here, as in the Columbia River 
(p. 141), the salmon run up the streams 
every summer. Sometimes the streams are 
almost full of these fish, all struggling to 
get up to the place where the eggs are laid. 
It is a wonderful sight to see 
such a salmon “run,” as it is 
called. Immense quantities of 
Alaskan salmon are canned at 
canneries scattered along the 
coast. The Alaskan steamers 
are loaded with canned salmon 
every fall, taking them to 
Seattle or other ports, for ship¬ 
ment to all parts of the world. 


Many different kinds of seals 
are found along the Alaskan coast. One 
of these, the fur seal, which 
lives in Bering Sea, is of great (3) °'- ahng 
value because of its soft fur, which is much 
used for winter coats. During the greater 
part of the year the fur seals swim about in 


( 2 ) Whaling 


Another ocean animal found in 
Alaskan -waters is the whale. This 
animal (Fig. 202), 
which is sometimes 
over a hundred feet long, is really 
a land animal that has taken up life in the sea, as 
seals and walruses have done. Therefore, unlike 
the true fishes, which secure air from the water 
by means of their gills, the whale must now and 
then rise to the surface for air. It is when rising to 
breathe, or “ blow,” that the huge creatures are killed. 


Fig. 203. — A group of fur seals on the shore of the Pribilof Islands. 

search of food; but in the spring, during 
the breeding season, they resort to the 
Pribilof Islands (Fig. 203). 

The United States government prohibits all per¬ 
sons from killing the fur seal, except one company, 















166 


NORTH AMERICA 






If 

ft 


Valuable as the fisheries 
are, it is especially gold,cop- 

„ per, and coal 

2. Mining , , 

that have at¬ 
tracted most attention to 
Alaska. In 1896 rich gold 
deposits were discovered in 
the gravels of a small stream, 
the Klondike , a tributary to 
the Yukon River in Canada, 
just across the Alaskan 
boundary. In a single year 
fifty thousand men rushed 
to this new gold field, as 
people did to California in 
1849. 

Since then gold has been 
found in many parts of 
Alaska, as at Nome, in the 
Xanana Valley, and else¬ 
where ; and every year 
thousands of men go there. 


Fig. 204. — “Front Street,” Fairbanks, Alaska. Note the numerous river 
steamers. This little city has electric lights and telephones, though near the 
Arctic Circle. 


But many of 


them return in the fall, partly to escape 


in and about Juneau, where there is the largest 
stamp mill in the world. 


which pays a special tax for the privilege of securing 
a certain number each year. At the proper season 
the men select a number of seals and drive them off 
for slaughter, much as sheep would be driven. There 
are so few of these seals, and they are so easily killed, 
that if the government did not protect them, all 
would soon be destroyed. 

Until recent years the fisheries were by far 
the most important of Alaskan industries. 
The value of fish caught in 
Alaska is about $ 21,000,000 
per year, salmon being the 
most valuable. 


miners were exposed to great hardships on their 
journey to the Klondike region. Now, however, by 
the help of a short railway across the mountains, 
one can go into the interior of Alaska much more 
easily. In summer many go down the Yukon River 
in steamers. Trace this course. 

Partly because of the difficulty of taking in sup¬ 
plies and machinery, there has, as yet, been little 
gold mining in the solid rock. There are, however, 
some such mines already opened, the largest being 


the cold winter, and partly because the 
gravels cannot be washed when the ground 
is frozen. In some places, where the ground 
is frozen even in summer, it has been neces¬ 
sary to thaw it out by means of fires before 
the gravel could be washed. In 1917, Alaska 
ranked third in the production of gold in the 
Union, the value of the output being over 
#15,000,000. (See Fig. 272 for 1910.) 

One great difficulty has been to reach the gold 
fields and to carry supplies to them. The early 


It is evident from the above that gold 
has been an important factor p r0S pects for 
in the history of Alaska. But the future 
the output of copper has now l. In connection 
far outstripped that of gold, Wlth mimn s 
and leads Alaskan industries. There are 
immense depositsin the Copper River region. 

In the future, Alaska will be most valu¬ 
able to us for its coal, of which there are 
immense deposits. These are now being 
opened up under government supervision. 
















TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 


167 


Until recently it has been difficult to se¬ 
cure supplies owing to lack of roads and 
railroads. However, a railroad now makes 
the great copper region accessible, and 
another is now being built by the govern¬ 
ment to the richest gold and coal regions; 
and when these are finished, the amount of 
metal mined will be greatly increased. 

There are other valuable resources . in 
Alaska. Among them are the extensive for- 

2. In connection ests > especially along the south- 
with other eastern coast, and in some of the 
resources warmer valleys of the interior. 

Although the country is very mountainous, there is 
much good soil; and in many places the climate is 
suitable to farming. Besides, even where the sum¬ 
mers are too short for crops, grass often grows 
luxuriantly. It is possible, therefore, to raise sheep 
and cattle here, and no doubt this will some day be 
one of the leading industries of Alaska. 

Reindeer also thrive in this country. On the 
tundras in northern Asia the reindeer is a domestic 
animal, supplying the people with meat, milk, and 
hides, besides serving as a draft animal. The rein¬ 
deer has already been introduced into the tundras 
of Alaska, and will make it possible for people to 
live there much more comfortably. 

In such a new countiy there are, of course, 
no large cities. The oldest is the quaint 
Principal town of SlTKA, the former 

towns capital. Juneau, which was 

made the capital a few years ago, besides 
being near valuable gold mines, is on the 
route to the interior. It is, therefore, an im¬ 
portant center. 

There are also many mining towns, such 
as Fairbanks, in the Tanana Valley, and 
Nome^ on Bering Sea. In 1898, the beach 
sands at Nome tvere found to contain gold, 
and in a single season a good-sized city had 
grown on the beach. Large numbers of 
men lived in tents, and others in rough 
wooden shanties. In 1900, there were over 
twelve thousand people here ; but ten years 
later, there were only about one sixth as 
many. In such a mining district a town 
may grow up in a year and become deserted 
in a single season. 


2 . Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Virgin Islands 

The latest addition to our territory is 
the little group of Danish West Indies or 
Virgin Islands, lying just east of Porto 
Rico. They were bought for $ 25,000,000 
and came into our possession in March, 1917. 
Our government had made The Virgin 
previous attempts to buy the Islands 
islands but was never able to make satis¬ 
factory terms. These little islands with a 
total area of only 142 square miles cost 
more than the Louisiana Purchase and 
Alaska together. Their population is small 
and their only industry is sugar growing. 
Their value to our government does not 
consist in their territory or their wealth. 
They were bought because one of them, St. 
Thomas, has a good harbor. This will form 
a good base for our fleet that guards the 
entrance to the Caribbean Sea. If a nation 
hostile to us had possession of this base, it 
would endanger the Panama canal. 

As a result of our war with Spain, in 
1898, the United States came into the con¬ 
trol of Cuba and Porto Rico, Cuba and 
two of the largest islands of Porto Rico 
the West Indies. Porto Rico was ceded to 
the United States, and Cuba was given its 
independence under the general guidance 
of the United States. 

Cuba is the largest island in the West 
Indies, being nearly as large as Pennsyl¬ 
vania, although much longer Area and sur- 
and narrower. Porto Rico is face features 
somewhat smaller than Connecticut. Each 
of these islands is quite mountainous, the 
peaks in Cuba ranging from 2000 to 4000 
feet above sea level, while one of them 
reaches an altitude of 8600 feet. 

Both islands lie entirely within the trop¬ 
ical zone, and on the lowlands neither snow 

nor frost is known. On ac- 

„ .. Climate 

count of the warm climate 

many people from the United States go to 

Porto Rico and Cuba to spend the winter. 

There is an abundance of rain in most 

parts of the islands; but the rainfall is 





'“‘TvgV. 


kntilIes °- oP ' 


o 

o 


6 
■—I 






































































































































































TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 


169 




Agriculture 


especially heavy on the northeastern, or 
windward , slopes, where the damp winds, 
which blow from the northeast, first reach 
the land. The summer is the rainiest sea¬ 
son, for then the winds blow with greatest 
strength and steadiness. 

While there are mountain ranges in each 
of the islands, a large portion of Porto 
Rico and Cuba has been cleared 
and cultivated. This is espe¬ 
cially true of Porto Rico, which is really 
an island of farms. Crops grow luxuriantly 
partly because of the excellent soil, and 
partly because of the favorable climate. 
Indeed, agriculture is the chief industry on 
both islands. 

As in all the West Indies, the principal 
crop is sugar cane (Fig. 207), and the 
l. The farm industry is carried on much as 
products it is in Louisiana (p. 87). 

A second important crop is tobacco, for 
which Cuba is especially noted. Tobacco 
is also raised extensively in Porto Rico. 
At Havana, and other places, it is manu¬ 
factured into cigars, which bring high 


allspice. Such fruits as bananas, oranges, 
limes, pineapples (Fig. 208), and cocoanuts 
are grown in great quantities; and there 


Fig. 200.—A native hut in Cuba. 

are also many vegetables. There is much 
pasture, too, and many cattle are raised. 

Our soil and climate have enabled us to 
raise almost all the farm products that we 
have needed, except such as 2 Theirspecial 
may be produced within these value to the 
islands. They Unlted states 
can send us tea, coffee, sugar, 
spices, and tropical fruits. 
They can also send us fruits 
and vegetables in midwinter. 
Thus it is of great value to 
us that we have such close 
relations with these islands. 


Fig. 207. — A train on a sugar plantation in Porto Rico drawing the sugar 

cane to the sugar mill. 


prices, — the Havana cigar being consid¬ 
ered the best that is made. 

Upon the hillslopes much coffee is pro¬ 
duced, and some tea and cocoa. Spices, 
including nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger, 
are products of the West Indies; also pep¬ 
per, cardamom, vanilla, and pimento or 


When first settled, the West 
Indies were covered by a dense 

tropical forest, and 

1 , ’ , Other raw 

some of the woods , 

. products 

still remain, espe¬ 
cially among the higher mountains. 
Tn Cuba, for instance, there is still 
much valuable timber, such as ma¬ 
hogany, ebony, and fustic, which 


produces a valuable yellow dye. 

Besides the raw products of the soil, there is some 
mineral wealth in Cuba. Copper is found here, and 
also iron, the latter having been mined for a long¬ 
time in the neighborhood of Santiago. 

Railways connect some of the cities, and 
also reach out into the agricultural districts. 



















170 


NOBTII AMEBIC A 


thus serving to bring the crops to the chief 
ports for shipment. However, many of the 

Conveniences towns are not connected by 
for transpor- rail ; and since there are few 
tation good wagon roads, they have 

almost no communication with the outside 
world, except by boat. 

During its occupation of Cuba, the United States 
has had one good macadam road built from the east¬ 
ern to the western end of the island. Steamboat 
lines now run from American ports to Havana and 


other West Indian ports. Thus the United States has 
done much to improve the conveniences for the trans¬ 
portation of goods; and by that means a much better 
market is secured for the products of these islands. 

Owing partly to lack of coal, and partly 
to the bad government of the Spaniards, 
Principal there has been very little manu- 
cities , facturing. There are, how¬ 
ever, several important cities along the 
coast. The largest of these is Havana, 
in Cuba, for a long time the center of the 
Spanish rule in America. Another Cuban 
city is Santiago, where the Spanish ships 
were sunk in the war of 1898; and a third 
is Matanzas. 

The two principal cities of Porto Rico 
are San Juan, on the northern coast, and 
Ponce, on the southern. The former is the 
largest city and capital of the island. 

Portions of Porto Rico and Cuba are 
densely populated, although in Cuba’s wars 


with Spain thousands upon thousands were 
killed in battle or starved to death. Much 
property was destroyed, and inhabitants 
altogether the island was so of the Islands 
badly governed that it will be many years 
before a full tide of prosperity returns. 

Many of the natives are of mixed blood. 
The Indians did not prove good slaves to 
their Spanish conquerors, and negro slaves 
were brought from Africa. Therefore, 
while pure-blooded Spaniards are numer¬ 
ous, many of the inhabitants 
of Porto Rico and Cuba are 
negroes, either full blooded or 
half-breeds. Under Spanish 
rule these natives were very 
poor and densely ignorant ; 
but they are capable of ad¬ 
vance under proper guidance. 

3 . Panama Canal Zone 
(Fig. 209 ) 

One of the most interest¬ 
ing regions controlled by the 
United States its location 
is the Panama and extent 
Canal Zone, a strip of land and water about 
fifty miles long and ten miles wide. This 
zone extends from the Caribbean Sea across 
the isthmus into the Pacific Ocean. It in¬ 
cludes some other land in the vicinity of the 
canal and the islands in the Bay of Panama. 
According to a treaty between the United 
States and the Republic of Panama, the 
government of this zone is placed under the 
control of the United States for an unlimited 
time. 

At the entrance to the Canal, on the 
Caribbean Sea, is located the city of Colon, 
formerly called Aspinwall. It its cities and 
is a city with large shipping ports, 
docks and well-paved streets. The shipping 
business is very important. French, Ger¬ 
man, English and American passenger boats 
call here regularly, and freight vessels from 
many nations are daily seen at Cristobal, 
the port just at the entrance to the Canal. 



Fig. 208. — Pineapples growing in Porto Rico. 







TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 


171 



Panama, across the isthmus, at the 
south end of the Canal Zone, but only 
two hours away, is a splendid city 
of old fortifications, monuments, and 
churches. It is the central market for 
most of the native products and the 
distributing point for the entire isth¬ 
mus. Near the city, at the entrance to 
the Canal, is Port Ancon, where the 
large ocean-going vessels and other 
ships engaged in foreign commerce are 
accustomed to call as they enter the 
canal. 

The cities of Panama and Colon are 
under the government of Panama, but 
the United States government has the 
right in both cities, as well as in the 
Canal Zone, to make provision for the 
health of the inhabitants. 

These two cities are also connected by 
the Panama Railroad, a work which 
was begun about 1850, and, after much 
hardship, completed nearly five years 
later. When the Canal was built it 
was necessary to move the railroad. 

The Canal itself is a magnificent 
public work. Its channel is broad and 
deep, and from 300 to 500 feet wide at the 
bottom. It has huge locks 110 feet wide 
and 1000 feet long, arranged in pairs so as 
to provide for vessels going in either direc¬ 
tion. The Canal also passes through two 
large artificial lakes, one of them over thirty 
miles long, made by a dam across the 
Chagres River ; and through a tremendous 
cut in the hills at Gaillard. 

One of the chief difficulties encountered 
in building the Canal was to keep the work¬ 
ers free from sickness. Sanitary measures 
enforced by the United States made the 
Zone a healthful place. 

4 . The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 215 ) 

Far out in the mid-Pacific, not quite a 
third of the distance from our western 
Their location coast to the Philippine Islands, 
and mountain- is a mountain chain fifteen 
ous character hundred miles long, most of 


which lies beneath the ocean. Several large 
volcanic peaks rise above the water, form¬ 
ing a chain of islands, known as the Sand¬ 
wich, or Hawaiian, Islands. The largest Of 
these islands is Hawaii, which is nearly as 
large as Connecticut. Each of the islands 
is made chiefly of melted rock, or lava, 
which has risen from within the earth (Fig. 
210). Two of the Hawaiian volcanoes are 
still active, and the fiery hot lava flows out 
from them every few years. The larger, 
Mauna Loa, rises nearly fourteen thousand 
feet above the sea. 

The latitude of the Hawaiian Islands 
(Fig. 3) is about the same as that of Cuba 
and Porto Rico. Being in the Their climate 
midst of the broad Pacific, and 
therefore surrounded by warm ocean water, 
the climate is warm and equable. From 
day to night, and even from summer to 
winter, the thermometer varies only a few 
























172 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 210. — The “ Lake of Fire ” in the crater of one of the Hawaiian volcanoes. This is red hot lava, 

or melted rock, that rises from within the earth. 


degrees. As in the West Indies, the north¬ 
east winds blow steadily and bring an 
abundance of rain to the windward slopes. 
The southwestern, or leeward , slopes are 
much drier, and in some places even arid. 



Fig. 211. —The grass hut of a native in the Hawaiian 
Islands. 


The Hawaiian natives, who are Malayans, 
are an intelligent race, resembling those 


of other Pacific islands. The Chinese 
form a large part of the foreign popula¬ 
tion ; but there are also many p eoplej j n . 
Japanese, Portuguese, and dustries, and 
Americans. cllie f cities 

In 1893, the ruler, a native queen, was de¬ 
posed, and the white population set up an 
independent government and offered the 
islands to the United States, as a territory. 
After some delay the offer was accepted, 



Fig. 212. — Natives planting rice in a Hooded held in the 
Hawaiian Islands. 


and the islands have been under our control 
since 1898. 















TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF TUE UNITED STATES 


173 



Many years ago white men introduced 
the crops of the Old World, and the larger 
islands have become quite productive, the 
principal crop being sugar (Fig. 213). 
Coffee, pineapples, other tropical fruits, and 
rice (Fig. 212) are also products, the last 
being cultivated especially by the Chinese. 

The two leading cities are Honolulu, 
on the island of Oahu, and Hilo, on Hawaii. 


would last less than two weeks, while the voyage 
requires more than three weeks. Therefore the gov¬ 
ernment needs to have a place along the route where 
it can store large quantities of coal. 

Coaling stations are also w'anted for passenger 
and freight steamers; and there is need of a place 
where all kinds of ships can stop for repairs. All 
large naval powers have such stations in various 
parts of the ocean. Great Britain, the greatest 
power upon the sea, has them in all parts of the 
world. 


Fig. 213. — Natives cutting sugar cane on a plantation in the Hawaiian Islands. 


The Hawaiian Islands were one of the 
principal sources of food for the early Cali- 
Value of the fornian miners ; and great 
islands to the quantities of raw sugar are 
United States n0 w brought from the islands 
to be refined on the Pacific coast (p. 153). 
San Francisco has long been the chief 
market place for the products of these 
islands. 

The territory has another and still greater value. 
During our war with Spain the islands were used as 
a coaling station for our war ships bound to the 
Philippine Islands, which then belonged to Spain. 
The distance from San Francisco to the Philippines 
is more than seven thousand miles. If we wish to 
send a war ship there from the Pacific coast, it is im¬ 
portant that it find a place, on the way, at which it 
can obtain coal. Such a ship might carry, perhaps, 
eight hundred tons of coal; but as from sixty to 
seventy tons may be burned each day, this supply 


5 . Other Small Island Possessions 

For a number of years the United States, 
Germany, and England had control over 
the Samoan Islands, far to the Samoan 
southwest of the Hawaiian Is- Islands 
lands (Fig. 215). This arrangement did 
not prove satisfactory, and now some of the 
islands, chief among which is Tutuila , are 
owned by the United States. They are of 
little value to us except for the coaling sta¬ 
tion at the harbor of Pago Pago. The more 
important island of Upola formerly belonged 
to Germany. 

As one of the results of the war with Spain, we 
obtained the island of Guam (Figs. 215 and 418), 
one of the Lad rones, or Robbers’ Q uam 
Islands, some distance east of the 
Philippines. Like Tutuila, Guam is of little service 
to us except as a coaling station for vessels. 












174 


NORTH AMERICA 



Our country lias obtained possession of several 
other small islands in the Pacific. Among these are 
. Marcus Island, northeast of Guam ; 

Other islands Wakg hland , between Guam and the 

Hawaiian Islands; Midway Islands, northwest of the 
Hawaiian Islands; and two small islands, Baker and 
Howland, nearly on the equator south of the Midway 
Islands. None of these are of special importance. 


6 . The Philippine Islands (Fig. 215 ) 

During the Spanish War, Admiral Dewey 
destroyed the Spanish war ships in the 

. , harbor of Manila, and took pos- 

How acquired . , t • r 

session 01 the Philippine Is¬ 
lands for the United States. At the close 


Fig. 214. — A family of Filipinos, or natives of the Philippine Islands 
belonging to the Malay race. 


of the war we paid Spain $20,000,000 to 
give up all claim to them, and since then 
they have formed a part of our territory. 

This group of islands, or archipelago, 
consists of more than three thousand is- 
Surface lands, many of which are very 

features small. The largest, Luzon, is 

about the size of Kentucky; and the second, 
Mindanao, is almost as large. 

Like the West Indies and the Hawaiian Islands, 
the Philippines are portions of mountain ranges in 
the sea. This mountain chain is still growing, and 


The year is divided into the dry 
and rainy seasons, the former coming 
during the winter months, the latter 
in the summer. The dry period 
lasts as long as the winds blow from 
the northeast, and then the fields 
often become parched and cracked, 
and the roads very dusty. In the 
summer, however, the winds change 
to the southeast. They are then so 
damp that there is a deluge of rain 
which changes much of the country 
to a swamp, making travel almost 
impossible. 

The climate, on the whole, is so damp that there 
can be 110 cellars under the houses, for they would 
be too wet to be healthful (Fig. 216). Indeed, the 
houses themselves are usually raised above the 
ground, and the family lives in the second story. 
The lower part is often used for storage, as a cellar 
is in our country. 

Forests cover a large part of the archipel¬ 
ago, for trees thrive here, often forming a 
tropical jungle. Among the vegetation 
valuable woods are ebony, the and animal 
rubber tree, from which gutta 
percha is obtained, and a palm from whose 


as the rocks slowly move and break, earthquake 
shocks are caused. Some of them have been very 
destructive; for instance, the earthquake of 1863 
destroyed a large part of Manila. Volcanoes, some of 
which rise to a height of eight thousand to ten thou¬ 
sand feet, are numerous here, and some of them are 
very active. 


While parts of the islands are mountain¬ 
ous, there are many valleys in which the 
soil is deep and fertile, being formed by the 
decay of lava, limestone, and other rocks rich 
in plant food. 

Since none of the islands are very large, 
there can be no great rivers. Still, there 
are some with deep mouths, making good 
harbors; and steamboats are 
able to navigate the lower por¬ 
tions of all the larger rivers. 

As in the West Indies, the 
climate of the Philippines is 
tropical — always 
warm, and some¬ 
times very hot, especially at a 
distance from the sea. 


Climate 









•j/ooo'ot 


Boundary Line 


3u [7 fijnpunog 


O 

2 5 

*s!f ^ 

•j 

,*■ 

*f/ 


" « D 

a ® 'a. 
a a- 

----?9?ooo 

o 

WAKE 1. 

r 

j 

o 

3 o 

f/J S 

| °3 

i 

CO ^ r 

UJ ’’J 

z 

o kj 

<£•.. 

q, 2 _ 't 
o. 

. 0 Q 

1 O f\ 

o •? 

2-S 

M S .2 

«i a 
«‘2. 

<a a. 

% f “3 

* S ft. 

3 »' 

•-.r/3 a 

*N. 

**•« 

o 

^ : 

rt 2 

"•fed < .... — • 

<8 


I 


FIG. 215. 

United States’ Dependencies in the Pacific. 






















































































































176 


NORTH AMERICA 



ippines 

Inhabitants 


sap alcohol may be made. Cinnamon, cloves, 
and pepper grow in these islands, and cocoa- 
nut and banana trees are also very common. 

As in other tropical forests, there are im¬ 
mense numbers of animals, especially insects, 
serpents, and beautiful birds. Among the 
serpents are the huge python and the deadly 
cobra de capello. There are also deer, apes, 
wild hogs, wild buffaloes, huge 
bats, and man-eating croco¬ 
diles. 

The inhabitants of the Phil- 
number over eight 
millions, about six- 
sevenths of whom 
are civilized. Two very differ¬ 
ent races occupy the islands,— 

(1) the aborigines, or original 
inhabitants ; and (2) the 
Malays (Fig. 214). The 
former, a race of small, dark- 
skinned savages, are called 
Negritos , a Spanish word mean¬ 
ing little negroes. They have 
been forced to retreat to the 
forests by the more powerful 
and intelligent Malays. Be¬ 
sides the Negritos, the Malays, 
and the half-breeds, many 
Chinese traders and Spaniards 
live on the islands ; and now 
there are also many Americans. 

Under the rule of the Spaniards, the more 
civilized tribes cleared the land and engasfed 
Principal in farming. Their wants are 
products few, however, and very little 

work supplies them with what they need. 
Cocoanuts and bananas are easily obtained, 
and rice, yams, and other food plants may be 
easily raised. There is, therefore, no special 
reason for working hard; and, in fact, in 
that warm, humid climate hard work is al¬ 
most impossible. Many of the natives, how¬ 
ever, are industrious and produce more than 
they need for themselves. 

The leading exports are hemp, sugar, 
tobacco, and copra. Of these, hemp is the 
best known. It is produced from the fibre 


of the wild plantain, which is much used in 
rope making. Rope of an excellent grade, 
called Manila rope, is manufactured in 
Manila. Knotted hemp is another form in 
which hemp is exported. It is made by the 
natives, who tie long fibres together so as to 
form thread or yarn. 

Refined sugar (Fig. 255) has displaced 


Fig. 216. — A native house in the Philippine Islands built of bamboo and 
covered with a thatch roof. Because of the dampness the houses do not 
rest on the ground. 

raw sugar as an export. With the establish¬ 
ment of sugar mills on the island it became 
possible to reorganize the sugar industry 
and to produce sugar of a superior grade. 

Cigars, many of which are made in Manila 
(Fig. 217), are the most important tobacco 
export. 

Copra, the dried meat of the cocoanut, is now ex¬ 
ported in large amounts. The cocoanuts are raised in 
great quantities in the interior of the country and are 
then shipped down the river in rafts to the cities to be 
dried. The copra from these nuts is sent to Europe, 
where it is used in soap making. The oil obtained 
from them is used in place of lard and kerosene. 

One of the most remarkable plants is the rattan, 
which the natives put to a thousand uses, such as 
making ropes, houses, canoes, frames, carts, beds, and 








TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 


177 




chairs. Many of the natives make a living by split¬ 
ting and marketing the cane. The bamboo is also 
of great value. This plant grows from one inch to 
eighteen inches in diameter, and from five to seventy 
feet in height. It is used in making the frames, sides, 


Fig. 217. — Native women of the Philippine Islands making cigars in Manila 


and even the roofs of houses, and also rafts, boats, 
agricultural implements, bows, bowstrings, arrows, 
spoons, forks, and many other articles. 

The natives have domesticated a native wild ani¬ 
mal, the water buffalo (Fig. 218), which is of much 
value as a draft animal. It is of 
special service in the rice fields, 
which are kept flooded during the 
growing season. The buffalo is 
quite at home in the mud, even 
preferring wet walking to dry; and 
in fact, it must have a daily plunge 
in the mud and water. 


for a long time the center of the Spanish 
government in the Philippines. It is still 
the center of government in the archipelago. 

Under Spanish rule large portions of the 
islands were left in a wild 
state ; and little p r0 bable 
attempt was made future 
to use the re- progress 
sources to their fullest extent. 
The islands are able to pro¬ 
duce far more farm products 
than at present. The riches of 
the forests have been little used; 
and the minerals, including 
gold, silver, coal, petroleum, 
marble,and sulphur, have like¬ 
wise been largely neglected. 

There is a promising future 
in the development of these 
resources, and the civilized 
natives are already helping 
greatly in the work. Many of 
them are educated and cul¬ 
tured, living in excellent 
homes. They are now partly 
governing themselves, having 
a legislature of their own ; but 
the United States still holds control. We 
are helping to educate the people, and have 
promised them their independence as soon 
as they are able to govern themselves. 


Cities 


In the entire group of is¬ 
lands, there are many cities 
having a popula¬ 
tion of more than 
ten thousand ; but there is 
only one of special impor¬ 
tance. This is Manila, on 
the island of Luzon. This city, which has 
over two hundred thousand inhabitants, is 
situated upon an excellent harbor, and was 


Fig. 218. — Native Filipinos plowing with the buffalo. 


Alaska : Questions. 1. How was Alaska ob¬ 
tained, and how was the purchase at first regarded? 
2. Describe the climate. 3. What are the prin- 




















.w 

v* a j 
,%[ ( 


l«\ 

a i \ 

\ ^ j 

}cc 

1 Oil 


) = 1 


\ 


























































COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


179 


cipal surface features? 4. What can you tell about 
the scenery? 5. What about the food fish there? 

G. State the principal facts about the 
■whaling. 7. The sealing. 8. The 
mining. 9. What about the future 
development of the territory ? 


Review Ques 
tions and 
Suggestions 


10. Name and locate the leading towns. 


Suggestions. 11. Collect some whalebone. 
12. How does the area of Alaska compare with that 
of the United States proper? 13. Measure the 
length of the Yukon, and compare it with the 
Mackenzie. 14. Draw an outline map of Alaska. 

Porto Rico and Cuba: Questions. 15. Give 
some facts in their history. What is our relation to 
Porto Rico? To Cuba? 1G. What are their areas 
and principal surface features? 17. Describe the 
climate. 18. Name the farm products. 19. IIow 
are these products of special value to the United 
States? 20. What other raw products are found? 

21. What about the conveniences for transportation? 

22. Name and locate the principal cities. 23. What 
about the inhabitants of the islands? 

Suggestions. 24. Estimate the length and the 
average breadth of Cuba. 25. What products of 
Cuba and Porto Rico are also raised in the United 
States? Where? 26. State some advantage that 
Cuba enjoys over Louisiana in the production of 
sugar. 27. Make a sketch map of Cuba and Porto 
Rico. 

Panama Canal Zone : Questions. 28. Locate 
this zone. 29. How was this strip of land obtained, 
and what is its extent? 30. What advantages have 
been secured by the canal ? 

Suggestions. 31. What difficulties w r ere caused 
by the climate in the work of digging the canal? 
32. Read magazine articles telling about the work. 

The Hawaiian Islands and other Small 
Islands: Questions. 33. Where are the Hawaiian 
Islands located? 34. What are their surface fea¬ 
tures? 35. Describe their climate. 36. State the 
principal facts about their inhabitants, industries, 
and principal cities. 37. What is the special value 
of these islands to the United States? 38. Name 
and locate other island possessions. 39. How are 
they important? 

Suggestions. 40. Why should you expect much 
the same products in the Hawaiian Islands as in 
Cuba? 41. Why is not the summer very hot in these 
tropica] regions? 42. What city on our eastern coast 
should be associated with San Francisco as impor¬ 
tant for refining sugar? 43. Explain the presence 
of many Chinese and Japanese in these islands. 

The Philippine Islands: Questions. 44. IIow 
were these islands acquired ? 45. Describe their sur¬ 
face features. 46. Their climate. 47. What vege¬ 
table and animal life is found here? 48. State the 
chief facts about the inhabitants. 49. What are the 
principal products? 50. What about the cities? 


51. Explain the possibilities for progress in these 
islands. 

Suggestions. 52. Compare the latitude of the 
islands with that of the West Indies and of the 
Hawaiian Islands. 53. Name several other places 
thus far studied that have volcanoes. 54. Collect 
pictures of scenes in the Philippines. 55. Obtain a 
piece of Manila hemp rope for the school collection; 
also a piece of bamboo and of rattan. 56. Find out 
about Dewey’s capture of Manila. 57. Make a sketch 
map of the islands. 

58. Name the principal dependencies of the United 
States. 59. Locate each on the map of the world 
(Fig. 3). 60. Walk toward each. 

61. Name the principal products of 
each. 62. In what zones does each vlew Q ues 10ns 
lie? 63. How did we obtain each? 64. Name and 
locate the principal cities in our dependencies. 


V. Countries North of the United 
States 

i. Canada and Newfoundland 

1. Trace the boundary line between United States 
and Canada. 2. Which of our states border on Can¬ 
ada? 3. What has caused so many M 
lakes in the Dominion ? 4. Name P & 7 

and locate the eight largest (including the Great 
Lakes). 5. Name and locate the four largest rivers. 
Into what ocean does each drain ? 6. Where are the 
largest cities? 7. What are the names of the larg¬ 
est ? 8. What reasons can you see for their location ? 

9. Trace the Arctic Circle across Canada. 10. Com¬ 
pare the latitude of Labrador with that of England. 
11. Locate the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Hudson Bay; 
Greenland; Newfoundland; Nova Scotia. 12. Name 
the divisions of Canada. 

With the exception of Alaska almost all 
of the land north of our country belongs to 
Canada. 

While the British were founding the thir¬ 
teen colonies, the French occupied the coast 
of eastern Canada and made History 
settlements at Quebec, Mon- l- Contest be- 
treal, and other points along and Frenc s h and 
the St. Lawrence Valley. Even the result 
now a very large majority of the inhabitants 
of the Province of Quebec speak French 
as their mother tongue. The French and 
English were often at war; but finally 
Ungland, aided by her colonies, won con¬ 
trol of the French possessions north of the 




180 


NORTH AMERICA 



United States. Only the small islands of 
Miquelon and St. Pierre were retained by 
France, and they are still used by the 
French as fishing stations. 

After our Revolutionary War, Canada still 
remained in possession of Great Britain. 

At first there were several 

2. Name of the . .,. 

Union, and the colonies with separate g-overn- 

provinces that ments, though all were under 

make it the control of Great Britain; 

but in 1867 a union was formed called the 

Dominion of Canada. There are nine 


Newfoundland has refused to join the 
Dominion, so that, while still a colony of 
Great Britain, it is not a part 3 Newfound- 
of Canada. Newfoundland in- land 
eludes not only the island by that name, 
but also the east coast of Labrador. 

The surface of southern Canada very 
closely resembles that of our Northern States. 
Eastern Canada, for instance, 
is much like New England. 

That section of Canada which 
lies north of Ohio and New 

York is 
more level, 
like those 

states ; and it is the 
most important farming 
region in the Dominion. 
Farther west, north of 
Dakota and Montana, 
are broad plains (Fig. 
226), increasing in eleva¬ 
tion to the very base of 
the Rocky Mountains. 


Surface 
features 
1. Resemblance 
between south¬ 
ern Canada and 
northern United 
States 


Fig. 220. —Lake Louise, nestled among the snow-capped mountains of western 
Canada, along the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 


Among the Western moun¬ 
tains are many canyons, gla¬ 
ciers, and snow-capped peaks 
(Fig. 220). The scenery of 
this region is wonderful, and 
the Canadian Pacific Railway 
(Fig. 280) passes through the 
best of it. A portion of this 
wonderland has been set aside 


divisions, or provinces , in the Dominion,— 
Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New 
Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, 
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Colum¬ 
bia. Each has a government of its own, 
as our states have ; but the united provinces 
have a central government with the capital 
at Ottawa, which corresponds to our cap¬ 
ital at Washington. 

Besides these provinces, there are the 
Yukon Territory (p. 166), and several un¬ 
developed territories. The names of the 
latter are given on the map (Fig. 219), but 
they have few inhabitants and are of little 
importance at present. Name these divi¬ 
sions. 


as a national park by the Canadian government. 

The Great Glacier covered the northeastern 
part of Canada, for it had its source in the high¬ 
lands of Labrador. As in our coun- 
try, the soil of much of Canada is Q reat Qi^er 6 
glacial drift; the Great Ice Sheet 
also formed many lakes there, and caused great 
numbers of rapids and waterfalls. 

The climate of southern Canada, like the 
surface features, corresponds to that of our 
Northern States, though it is 
slightly cooler. The climate 
of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and south¬ 
ern Quebec, for example, resembles that of 
New England, while Ontario has a climate 
similar to that of New York, Ohio, and 
Michigan. Farther west, in Manitoba, we 


Climate 











COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


181 


find nearly the same climate as in Minne¬ 
sota and North Dakota ; and west of this, 
in Saskatchewan and Alberta, come the 
arid lands. In British Columbia, on the 
west coast, there is heavy rainfall and an 
even temperature, as in Washington. 

Toward the north, however, the country grows 
rapidly colder, until, in the extreme northern por¬ 
tion, the climate is frigid, and there are broad ex¬ 
panses of frozen tundra. 

The Labrador current, which cools the tempera¬ 
ture of New England so much (p. 42), sweeps from 
the Arctic Ocean past Labrador and greatly chills 
the coast of that region, as well as Newfoundland 
and Nova Scotia. There is no such ice-laden current 
in the Pacific, and for that reason the climate is 
far warmer there. Notice, for instance, how much 
farther north Vancouver and Juneau are than any 
city in eastern Canada. 

The forests which cover northern New 
England extend into the hilly and raoun- 
Lumbering tainous section of New Bruns- 

1. Extent of wick and southern Quebec 

the forests (Tig. 221). In fact, from 

there westward to the Pacific this wooded 
tract, sweeping northward around the vast 
plains of Manitoba, is from two to three 
hundred miles tvide. This forest, which is 
one of the largest in the world, includes 
fully a million square miles, or over a 
fourth of the entire area of Canada. 

In the east, the principal trees are spruce, balsam 
fir, pine, and maple ; in the west they are spruce, 
mammoth cedar, sometimes sixty feet in circum¬ 
ference, and Douglas fir, which in some cases grows to 
a height of two hundred feet (Fig. 222). Most of 
this vast forest is a wilderness, about which very 
little is known. Wild animals still live here- in 
great numbers, and there are few parts of the con¬ 
tinent where the hunting for large game is so good. 
Among the animals are the deer, moose, bear, fox, 
wolf, wild cat, beaver, and mink. Furs are one of 
the principal products of the region. From very 
early days the Hudson Bay Company has had trad¬ 
ing stations in this wilderness for the purpose of 
obtaining the furs from Indiana and other hunters 
and trappers. 

Lumbering is carried on in much the 
same manner as in the north- 

2 . Method of ern rt 0 £ t j ie UriLed States 

lumbering, and 1 

lumber centers CPP* &11Q 139)* 111 tllG G&st 


one of the rivers down which tire lo^s are 

O 

floated to the sea is the St. John. Upon 
this river are Fredericton, the capital of 
New Brunswick, and St. John, the largest 
city in that province. In these two cities 
the logs are made into wood pulp and 
lumber. Immense quantities of both these 



Fig. 221. — Lumbermen chopping down a tree in the 
forest of eastern Canada. 


products are shipped from the seaport of 

St. John. 

The woods of Canada are at present one 
of its greatest sources of wealth; indeed, 
there are hundreds of sawmills at the 
rapids on the streams, and even in the large 
cities. Among the latter, Montreal, 
Toronto, and Ottawa are important, 
especially in the manufacture of lumber 
into such articles as doors, blinds, barrels, 
and furniture. 

It was the excellent fishing on the shal¬ 
low banks off the eastern coast of Canada 
that early attracted the French to America, 









182 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 222. — One of the large trees in the forest of western Canada. 
The boy sitting on the trunk gives a scale by which you can 
judge the size of the tree. Contrast its size with that shown in 
Figure 221. 


lakes and streams. In addition, 
there is much fishing on the west 
coast, especially for salmon. 

It is interesting to watch the salmon as 
they run up the streams to spawn. At 
times, in Older to get beyond waterfalls, 
they must leap several feet into the air 
(Fig. 223). Sometimes they fail, but, 
returning to the task, they try again and 
again until successful. When the young 
have reached the proper size, they go 
downstream to the ocean, where they live 
until they are ready to spawn. It is be¬ 
lieved that they always go back to the 
same river in which they were born. 

While traveling up the streams, the sal¬ 
mon are easily caught in nets set across 
the current, or by dip nets in the hands of 
fishermen, or sometimes by salmon wheels- 
Immense numbers of salmon are canned in 
western Canada (Fig. 224), as in Wash¬ 
ington and Alaska. 

We have already learned (p. 135) about 
the seal fishing in Alaska. Seals are also 
found on the eastern side of 
Canada, but their fur is of ’ ea 1D ® 
little value. There is, however, a layer of 
fat, or blubber, just beneath the skin, as in 
the whale. This can be made into oil, and 
it is mainly for the blubber that these east¬ 
ern seals are caught, though the skins are 
also used for making leather. Vessels go 
out from St. John’s, Newfoundland, every 
spring to hunt the seals in the ice that floats 
down in the Labrador current (Fig. 225). 


along 


Fishing 
1. Catching of 
food fish 


and fishing is still a flourishing industry 
that coast. Fully fifty thousand 
people in Newfoundland and 
the eastern provinces, espe¬ 
cially Nova Scotia and Prince 
Edward Island, are engaged in cod fishing. 
One of the best-known fishing ports is Yar¬ 
mouth, in Nova Scotia, although a great 
deal of fishing is carried on from Halifax, 
and other smaller places in Nova Scotia. 
St. John’s, Newfoundland, is another im¬ 
portant fishing port. 

There is also much inland fishing, for the 
streams and lakes still abound in trout, 
pickerel, whitefish, bass, and salmon (Fig. 
223). Every year large numbers of men 
go from Canada and the United States to 
enjoy the sport of fishing in the Canadian 


What was said about the agriculture and 
grazing in our Northern States applies 



Fig. 223. — Photograph of a salmon leaping up over a 
waterfall in a stream on the coast of Labrador. This 
fall is over ten feet high and yet the salmon are able 
to leap up over it. 













COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


183 



Columbia as 


In the midst of this wheat region is Win¬ 
nipeg, the chief city of Manitoba, in which 
flour is manufactured, as in Minneapolis. 
This city is situated on the banks of the Red 


almost equally to Canada. For example, 
the warm, damp ocean winds favor the pro- 
Agriculture Auction of wheat and the hardy 

1. Wheat and ^ ru ^ s British 

hardy fruits in well as ill Wash- 
the West ington (p. 141). 

Farther east, on the plains 
at the base of the Rocky 

2. wheat from Mountains, the 

dry farming climate is too 
arid for general farming and 
water for irrigation is not 
available. Here large crops 
of wheat are raised by dry 
farming. Stock raising was 
formerly the principal in¬ 
dustry. There are several 
towns here, the largest being Fig. 224 — Salmon in a salmon cannery, just brought from the water. 


Calgary. 



In central Saskatchewan the climate be¬ 
gins to be more favorable for agriculture, 

3. The greatest an( l there, as well as in Mani- 
grainregion, and toba, enormous quantities of 
its leading city w p ea t, are raised. This wheat 

belt is a continuation of that found in 


populous farm¬ 
ing section, and 
its products 


The 


re 


Fig. 225. — Seal hunters killing seal on the floe ice in 

north of Newfoundland. 


Minnesota and eastern Dakota. Although 
the winters are long and cold, the summers 
are warm, so that the hardy grains, espe¬ 
cially wheat (Fig. 226), oats, and barley, 
thrive. 


River of the North, which empties into Lake 
Winnipeg. It is the center of the principal 
railroad lines of Canada. Note its central 
location (Fig. 219). - 

The country north of Lake Superior is 
hilty and for the most part forest-covered, 

being quite 4 The most 
like north¬ 
ern Minne¬ 
sota and 
Michigan. 

therefore, little agricul¬ 
ture here. 

Farther east, on the 
peninsula between 
Lakes Erie, Huron, and 
Ontario, is some of the 
best farm land in Canada. 
This region is in the 
province of Ontario, 
which is the most popu¬ 
lous of the Canadian 
provinces, containing 
about one third of all the 
people in Canada. What large cities do 
you find here? More than two thirds of 
the inhabitants of Ontario, however, dwell 
either on farms or in small towns in the 
farming districts. 


the Labrador current 
























184 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. ‘226. — Fields of wheat, some cut, some uncut, ou the level, fertile plains of southern Manitoba. 


Ontario is no farther north than cen¬ 
tral and western New York ; and its cli¬ 
mate is greatly influenced by the' Great 
Lakes. Here grapes, peaches, corn, and 
even tobacco are raised; also quantities of 
oats, wheat, barley, and flax. Some of the 
finest horses in America are reared in On¬ 
tario, and the province is further noted as 
a dairy region. 

There is a strip of excellent farming 
country almost the entire length of the St. 
5 Farming in Lawrence River, and along a 
southeastern part of the southern shores of 
Canada the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

Prince Edward Island has many fine farms, 
and portions of Nova Scotia and New Bruns¬ 
wick also are farming districts. One of 
the best and most beautiful farming regions 
in all Canada is in southwestern Nova 
Scotia, noted especially for delicious apples. 
It was here that the French settlements 
were made, about which Longfellow has 
written in his “ Evangeline ”; and this is 
often called “The Land of Evangeline.” 

Western Canada, like western United 
States, is a noted mining 
region. Among the minerals, 


Mining 


1. In British i i j m • ni 

Columbia and g old and Sllver are especially 

Yukon Territory important, though lead and 


copper ores, building stone, coal, and other 
mineral products are also obtained. Valu¬ 
able deposits of coal are found both among 
the mountains and in the plains farther 
east. You have already learned that the 
famous Klondike region is situated in Yukon 
Territory, near the Alaskan boundary. 
Although so near the Arctic Circle, Daw¬ 
son, in the Klondike Region, has grown 
rapidly because of the gold mining. 

Gold and silver are found in the province 
of Ontario, in the vicinity of the Lake of 
the Woods. One of the most 2 i n Ontario 
remarkable silver deposits on and southeast- 
tlie continent has recently been ern Canada 
discovered at Cobalt, north of Toronto. 
Nickel is also mined in Ontario, and some 
oil fields have been developed. 

Although iron ore has been discovered in 
certain places, the scarcity of coal, near at 
hand, has prevented Canada from producing 
much iron. The coal of western Canada is 
too distant for use in the Eastern cities, and 
the coal beds of the East have never been 
thoroughly developed. In Nova Scotia, and 
on Cape Breton Island, which is a part of 
Nova Scotia, there are extensive beds of 
soft coal, like that of western Pennsylvania 
and the Central States. This coal is 














COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


185 


shipped to the cities of the St. Lawrence 
Valley. A few years ago blast furnaces 
were erected at Sydney, Cape Breton Is¬ 
land, and an important iron-manufacturing 
industry has arisen there. This has in¬ 
creased the value of the Nova Scotia coal. 


the other hand, ship canals have been built 
around the rapids and falls (Fig. 227), so 
that good-sized boats are able to go from 
the open ocean to the western part of Lake 
Superior, a distance of twenty-two hundred 
miles. This gives the Canadian route a 



Fig. 227. — Tlie Welland Canal, between Lakes Erie and Ontario. At this point there are two locks in the canal. 

Point them out. Why are they needed? 


There appear to be two outlets by water 
for central Canada, — one by way of the 
Transporta- St. Lawrence, the other by 
tion way of Hudson Bay. The 

latter is of little use, however. Explain 
why. 

Canada shares with the United States the 
advantages of navigation on all the Great 
Lakes, with one exception. Which is it ? 
Fortunately for Canada, the lower St. Law¬ 
rence lies wholly within that country. But 
this river has some serious drawbacks. One 
is the ice that stops navigation in winter. 
A second is the presence of numerous rapids 
over which vessels cannot pass in going up¬ 
stream. In addition, dense fogs are com¬ 
mon in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along 
the Newfoundland coast, where the damp 
air from the ocean is chilled in passing over 
the cold Labrador current (Fig. 312). On 


great advantage over the Erie Canal route 
upon which only small canal boats can go. 

There are many other large rivers in 
Canada besides the St. Lawrence River. 
Name them, and tell why most of them are 
of little value. 

Railways have been of great importance in 
Canada, as in the United States. The lead¬ 
ing railway is the Canadian Pacific, which 
extends from St. John, New Brunswick, 
entirely across Canada, to VANCOUVER, on 
the Pacific coast. It is the shortest route 


from England to China and Japan, and much 
freight is sent that way. Another trans¬ 
continental line is the Grand Trunk Pacific. 

Montreal (Fig. 228), the principal city 
in Canada, is on the St. Law- 
renoe River (Fig. 229), at the p admg c ‘ lles 

, n- 1- Along the St. 

1110 util ot tll6 Ottawa lil\Cl} Lawrence and 

and just below the Lacliine Ottawa rivers 








186 


NORTH AMERICA 


Rapids. Thus goods from Europe may be 
carried by ocean vessel to Montreal, fully a 
thousand miles inland; then, by transfer to 
other ships, they may be taken on canals, 
rivers, and lakes as far as Duluth. By this 
means, and by railways also, raw products 
from the North, East, South, and West col¬ 
lect at Montreal, either to be manufactured, 
or to be shipped farther. In its extensive 


articles of wood, various steel and iron 
products, and cigars. 

Farther down the river is Quebec, which 
was once the center of the French govern¬ 
ment in Canada, and the principal city. It 
is situated on a high bluff rising above the 
St. Lawrence, and is fortified so as to com¬ 
mand that river. The better location of 
Montreal, farther inland, has drawn the com- 



I/muucml 


'Cfuuk'CjU' 


Ste.Cutatfi&ude 
/St.Henri V/ 


« WILES TO ONE INCH 


Msbre: 


S MILES TO ONE INCH 


Drummond vill\ *v 


J 

Richmond i 


Slier brook 


Fig. 228. —Map to show the location of Montreal, Ottawa, and Quebec. 


connection with the interior of Canada, by 
water and by rail, Montreal reminds us of 
New York; but since it has a less produc¬ 
tive territory to draw upon, it has grown 
far less rapidly than New York. 

As in the large cities of the United States, 
there are many kinds of manufacturing in 
Montreal, including the making of sugar, 
boots and shoes, cotton and woolen cloth¬ 
ing, India-rubber goods, furniture and other 


merce away from Quebec. The advantage 
of Montreal’s situation has been greatly in¬ 
creased by the building of ship canals around 
the rapids ; also by the dredging of the St. 
Lawrence, thus deepening the channel so as 
to admit ocean vessels as far as the city. 

Quebec is one of the quaintest and most 
interesting cities on the continent. It 
resembles a bit of the Old World, trans¬ 
planted to America, and a visitor from the 

















































COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


187 



Fig. 229. — A view of Montreal from the Kill called Mount Royal, which rises directly behind the city. In the distance 

is the broad St. Lawrence. Notice the long bridge crossing it. 


United States feels that he is indeed in a 
foreign country. There is some manufac¬ 
turing there, such as the making of boots 
and shoes. 

Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, is 
above Montreal, at some large falls in the 
Ottawa River. On account of this fine 
water power, it has much manufacturing, 
and is especially noted for its lumber man¬ 
ufactories. Its beautiful government build¬ 


ings, known there as the Parliament Build¬ 
ings (Fig. 230) were recently burned. 


What Canadian cities on the Atlantic coast have 
already been mentioned, and in what connections ? 
One of these, Halifax, in Nova 
Scotia, is one of the oldest cities in . .. A1 ° ng the . 
Canada. Although it has an excel- At!an,,c “ ast 
lent harbor, Halifax has never become a great city. 
The reason is easily seen on examining the map 
(Fig. 219). The narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia is 
not large enough to supply raw materials and man- 



















NORTH A MEMO A 


188 


ufactured articles in sufficient quantity to make it a 
great shipping point, and the country farther west 
is too difficult to reach, ft is much cheaper to send 
Western goods to Montreal, for shipment eastward, 
than to carry them by rail as far as Halifax. 

New York and Montreal show clearly the reasons 
why some cities flourish ; and Halifax is an equally 
good illustration of the reason why other cities fail 
to grow so rapidly. 

Toronto, the second city in size in Can¬ 
ada, is located on an excellent harbor on the 
3. Along the shores of Lake Ontario. Being 
Great Lakes in the midst of a fertile farm¬ 
ing country, and having water connection 
with coal on the east and south, and with 



Fig. 231. — A Greenland Eskimo in his skin-boat, or kayak. In the distance 
are icebergs which have broken off from the great Greenland glacier. 

lumber and other raw products on the west, 

Toronto has become a great manufacturing 
center. At the same time it is one of the 
most attractive cities on the continent. 

Not far from Toronto, on the extreme western 
end of Lake Ontario, is Hamilton, a manufacturing 
and trade center; and there are other cities on the 
same peninsula, the largest being London. At the 
eastern end of Lake Ontario, near the Thousand 
Islands, is Kingston, which has cotton and woolen 
mills, car shops, and locomotive works, besides 
being a lake port and railway center. Windsor 
(Fig. 154), opposite Detroit, shares some of the 
advantages of that city, being a shipping point and 
a manufacturing center. Port Arthur, and Ft. 

William on Lake Superior, near] the United States 
boundary, are shipping points for grain, cattle, and 
other Western products. 

What have you already learned about Winnipeg ? 


Vancouver, on the Pacific coast, has already been 
mentioned. In what connection ? Across the strait 
on the island of Vancouver, is the 4 other cities 
city of Victoria. How do these 
two cities compare in size with the two largest on 
Puget Sound ? (See Appendix, pp. 456 and 458.) 

2 . Greenland 

The Eskimos (Fig. 231) living on the west coast 
of Greenland are under the control of the Danes, 
who trade with them for skins, -walrus, ivory, blub¬ 
ber, and eider down. The most northern of the 
Danish trading stations is Upf.rnivik, which is 
the most northern point in the -world where white 
men live. Some uncivilized Eskimos, however, have 
homes still farther north. 

Most of Greenland is a barren 
waste of ice and snow — one of the 
most complete deserts in the world. 
There is no living thing to be found 
in the ice-covered interior. The 
extent of this land, and other facts 
about it, you have already studied 
in connection with the Great 
Glacier. 

1. What two nations struggled 
for possession of Canada, and what 
was the result? 

2. How many prov- Review 

inces are there in Q ues 10ns 
Canada, and what are their names? 

3. What can you tell about New¬ 
foundland? 4. Show how- fully the 
surface features of southern Canada 
correspond to those of our Northern 
States. 5. What have been the 
effects of the Great Glacier here? 

6. Describe the climate. 7. Where are the forests? 
8. What is the method of lumbering, and what are 
the leading lumber centers? 9. Where are food 
fish caught? What kinds are caught? 10. What 
about the sealing? 11. What are the farm prod¬ 
ucts in the West ? 12. State the principal facts 

about ranching. 13. Where is the principal grain 
region, and what is the leading city there? 14. 
Where is the most populous farming section, and 
what are its products ? 15. What about farming in 

southeastern Canada? 16. What can you tell about 
mining in British Columbia and Yukon Territory. 
17. What mineral products are found in Ontario and 
southeastern Canada? 18. What are the conveniences 
for transportation? 19. Locate and tell the princi¬ 
pal facts about the leading cities along the St. 
Lawrence and Ottawa rivers. 20. Along the Atlantic 
coast. 21. Along the Great Lakes. 22. Locate and 
tell about other cities of importance. 23. What is 
the condition in Greenland? 










co 


d 

HH 

fa 
















































































































































190 


NORTH AMERICA 


1. Compare the area of Canada with that of the 
United States (Appendix, pp. 451 and 453). 2. Com¬ 

pare the populations (Appendix). 
Suggestions g p> ea( j the story Q f « Evangeline.” 

4. Lake Erie is how much higher than Lake Onta¬ 
rio? llow are ships able to pass from one lake 
to the other? 5. Why should Buffalo grow more 
rapidly than Toronto ? 6. Of what advantage is it 

to the United Kingdom to have such a large, pro¬ 
ductive colony as Canada? 7. What books on 
Arctic travel have you read ? Tell some of the things 
you have learned from them. 8. Read Nansen’s 
“ First Crossing of Greenland ” or Peary’s “ North¬ 
ward over the Great Ice.” 9. Recall facts that you 
have already learned about the Eskimo. 


YI. Countries South of the United 

States 


Mexico. 1. Describe the relief of Mexico. 2. Name 
the two large peninsulas. 3. What river forms a 
part of the northern boundary? 
Map Study 4 Whafc salt waters border Mexico? 

5. Find the capital. 6. Find the seaport Vera Cruz. 
7. Compare the coast line with that of the north¬ 
eastern part of the United States. 

Central America. 8. Name the countries. 9. What 
sea lies to the east? 10. What large lake do you 
find? 11. Examine the small map of the Panama 
Canal. Describe the route proposed. 12. Name the 
two cities at the two ends of the canal. 

West Indies (Fig. 205). 13. Find the Bahamas; 

the Lesser Antilles; the Greater Antilles. 14. Name 
the four largest islands in the West Indies. 15. In 
what zone do the West Indies lie? 16. AVhat 
waters touch the shores of the West Indies? 
17. What nation owns the Bahamas? 18. AVhat 
other nations have possessions in the AVest In¬ 
dies? 19. Locate the Bermuda Islands on the map, 
Figure 9. 


i. Mexico 

After Columbus discovered the West 
Indies, the neighboring coast of the main- 
History land was visited and settled. 

1 , The inhabit- Thus the Spaniards came into 
ants possession of Mexico and some 

of the country to the north which now be¬ 
longs to the United States. 

The explorers found so much gold and 
silver in Mexico that many Spaniards 
settled there. They opened mines, and 
started coffee plantations, farms, and cattle 
ranches. Many of the Spaniards inter¬ 


married with the Indians, so that Mexico 
has a varied population. There are savage 
Indians, half-civilized Aztecs, Spanish and 
Indian half-breeds, and some pure-blooded 
Spaniards. 

Spain governed Mexico so badly that 
the people finally rebelled, and in 1821 won 
their independence. They 2. The gov- 
then established a republic eminent 
with a government modeled after our own. 
There are twenty-seven states, each with 
a government and capital, somewhat like 
our states; and there are three territories. 
There is also a central government, with 
the capital at Mexico City, where the 
president lives. 

For a long time Texas, New Mexico, and Colo¬ 
rado, together with the country west of them to the 
Pacific, were a part of Mexico. 

Texas won its independence by terr j tor y 
war, and joined our Union (p. 100) ; 
and as a result of our war with Mexico, called the 
Mexican War, the United States obtained all the 
territory which in Figure 283 is marked “ Mexican 
Territory ceded 1848.” 


Surface 
features 
1. The four 
sections at 
different 
altitudes 

occupying a 
the country 


Mexico consists of four sections, at dif¬ 
ferent heights above sea level. The lowest 
of these is a coastal plain, and 
other lowlands, near the sea. 

The second includes the slopes 
that extend toward the high¬ 
lands of the interior. The 
third is the highland itself, a 
broad table-land, or plateau, 
large part of the interior of 
(Fig. 9). The fourth consists of moun¬ 
tain ranges and peaks, which are a con¬ 
tinuation of the Cordillera of our Western 
States. Among the mountains, as in the 
United States, are volcanic cones (Fig. 
233), two of them, Orizaba and Popocate¬ 
petl (Fig. 240), being among the highest 
peaks on the continent. 

The divide of this narrow part of North 
America extends from north to south, send¬ 
ing some of the streams east- „ 

■jii «i rpi Its livers 

ward, others westward. ihus 

all the streams of the country are short. 
They have a rapid fall in descending from 



COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


191 


the interior plateau, and have cut deep 
canyons in its edges. In addition, the 



Fig. 233. — Colima, a Mexican volcano, in 
eruption. This great column of steam 
and volcanic ash has been expelled with 
terrific force, rising to a height of over 
a mile. 

streams pass through such an arid coun¬ 
try that they have little water. Rivers of 
this kind are not useful for navigation. 

o 


near Vera Cruz and in Yucatan, have the 
hot climate of the tropical zone (Fig. 234), 
with abundant rain brought by the damp 
winds that blow across the Gulf of Mexico 
and the Caribbean Sea. 

On the slopes west of these plains the 
temperature is not so hot, but there is much 
rain. This belt has a subtropical climate. 

The interior plateau is so high that the 
climate is temperate, even in the part that 
lies south of the Tropic of Cancer ; but 
there is so little rain that the country is 
arid (Fig. 299). The climate becomes 
steadily cooler the higher one goes. In¬ 
deed, even within the tropical zone, there 
are places among the mountains where the 
snow never melts, and where there are true 
glaciers. On these high mountain slopes 
the rainfall is quite heavy. 

In the greater part of Mexico forests are 
rare, except upon the higher mountains. In 
fact, there is so little forest on Products from 
the arid plateau that the in- forest trees 
habitants find difficulty in ob- and other na- 
taining wood for fuel. Much tive P lants 
of this is dug from the ground ; for some 
of the arid-land bushes, such as the mes- 
quite, have long, thick roots which make 
excellent firewood. The other plants found 



This lack of large, navigable 
rivers has greatly interfered 
with the development of 
Mexico. Suggest why. 

As in our Southern States, the 
land has been rising instead of 
sinking. Therefore 
the coast is x-egular, 
and there are few 
good harbors. There are two 
large peninsulas projecting from 
the mainland. One of these is 
Yucatan; the other is Lower Cali¬ 
fornia, a southern extension of the 
mountains of our Western States. 


3. The coast 
line and harbors 


Mexico has four different 
kinds of climate, correspond¬ 
ing somewhat 

Climate closely to the four areas of 

different altitudes. The low coastal plains, 


Fig. 231. — A view in the tropical lowlands of Mexico near the coast, called 
the “ hot lands.” The road is bordered by banana trees. 


in the arid lands resemble those of our 
Western States (p. 20). 










192 


NORTH AMERICA 




In southern Mexico and on the damp 
lowlands, on the other hand, there are 
dense tropical forests. In these are found 
many valuable woods, such as mahogany, 
rosewood, and logwood. I he rubber tree 
also grows here, and large quantities of rub¬ 
ber are obtained. 

One of the most valuable of the native plants is 
the heniquen, a variety of hemp, which thrives in 
Yucatan. Among the exports of Mexico, this and 
other fibers rank next in value to 
mineral products, most of the fiber 
going to the United States. 

Another product is the vanilla 
bean, which grows upon a climbing 
plant. In the seed-pod are nestled 
the fragrant beans which are used 
for making flavoring extracts, for 
perfumeries, and for medicine. Pep¬ 
per, made from the dried berry of a 
tropical plant, is obtained in Mexico. 

Tndigo, useful as a dye, is likewise 
obtained from a berry in this region; 
and sarsaparilla is extracted from 
the roots of a tropical plant that 
grows here. 

Although the climate of a 
large part of Mexico is arid, 
agriculture is the 
principal industry 
of the people. This is partly 
due to the snows and rains 
among the mountains, which 
supply water for irrigation. On the irri¬ 
gated farms the products of the temperate 
zone are raised, such as wheat, corn, and 
beans — the latter being one of the staple 
foods of the Mexicans. Much fruit is also 
produced, especially apples, pears, peaches, 
and grapes. 

A species of native arid-land plant, called agave, 
is of great value. The stout, sharp-pointed leaves 
of the agave rise in a tuft from near the ground; in 
the center stands the flower stalk, which sometimes 
reaches a height of forty feet, and which bears a 
cluster of white flowers on the top. This is also 
called the century plant, because it requires so long 
(from ten to seventy years) to mature and produce 
this flower stalk. From the juice of the agave the 
Mexicans obtain an alcoholic drink known as pulque, 
and another known as mescal. The tough leaves of 


some varieties of agave contain a fiber which is made 
into paper and a strong thread; and from the juices 
of one kind, called the maguey, soap may be made. 
So valuable is the maguey that it is carefully culti¬ 
vated upon plantations (Fig. 235). 

The Mexican farming methods, which are very 
crude, are a mixture of ancient Aztec customs and 
those introduced from Spain several . 

centuries ago. One may still see the ^thodT^and 
wooden plow which barely scrapes Zme life 
the ground; and also the wooden¬ 
wheeled cart drawn by oxen. There are, however, 



Agriculture 

1. On the arid 
plains 

(1) Products 
by irrigation 


Fig. 235. — Irrigated fields on the plateau of Mexico. 

on the right are maguey. 


The rows of plants 


many farmers who have adopted the same methods 
of farming as we have; and every year their 
number is increasing, for Mexico is now advancing 
rapidly. 

The home life of the people is interesting. Their 
houses have but one story, and are commonly built 
of sun-dried bricks, or adobes (Fig. 192), held to¬ 
gether by layers of mud. Often there is but one 
room (Fig. 236), the ceiling being made of brush, 
and the floor of nothing but earth or stones. In 
this one room the whole family cook, eat, and 
sleep. Their food consists of very simple materials, 
such as unraised bread, baked in the fireplace, 
beans, and sometimes meat, commonly cooked 
with red pepper. Men, women, and even children 
use tobacco. 

AVliile this description is true for the poorer 
classes, it of course does not apply to the wealthier 
and educated Mexicans. But even these have adobe 
houses, which somewhat resemble those of southern 
Spain. 

So much of Mexico is arid that large 
sections are suited only to grazing. For 










COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


193 



Fig. 23G. —Interior of a Mexican adobe house. 


this reason, one of the leading industries is 

ranching. As in our Western States, there 

are extensive cattle and sheep 

(3) Ranching i 1 i • i . i 

ranches ; and hides, meat, and 

wool are important exports. 

Many horses and mules are raised; but the little 
Mexican jackass, or burro , is one of the most com¬ 
mon draft animals (Fig. *237). It is the size of a 
small pony, and is made to do all kinds of work. 
The burro is a very patient benst, and is able to 
carry heavy loads and endure much hardship. 

Hogs are fattened in large numbers, and there are 
many goats. The latter are much prized, not only 
for their meat and hides, but also for their milk, 
which is used as a food and in making cheese. 

On the damp lowlands, the farm prod¬ 
ucts are quite different from those on the 
2. On the lower, arid plateau. There rice, sugar 
humid lands cane, and cotton are produced ; 
also tropical fruits, such as oranges, ba¬ 
nanas, cocoanuts, and pineapples. Upon the 
slopes between the tropical lowlands and 
the temperate plateau much cotton, tobacco, 
and coffee are raised. 

Coffee, one of the most valuable products of 
Mexico, requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, a 
warm climate, and plenty of shade. In order to 
secure shade, the coffee bush, which reaches a height 
of from ten to fifteen feet, is planted in the shade of 
higher trees. A white blossom appears as early as 


March, and after the flower falls off, 
the coffee berry begins to grow (Fig. 
238). It resembles a dark red cran¬ 
berry. The coffee is inside of this 
berry in the form of two kernels, 
and the husk must be removed in 
order to prepare such kernels for 
market. 

One of the principal objects 
of the Spaniards in exploring 
the New World Mining 
W'as to obtain gold i. Extent of 
and silver ; and minerals 
they were rewarded in their 
search by the discovery of rich 
mines both in Mexico and 
South America. Some of 
these mines had been worked 
by the Indians ; others were 
found by the Spaniards them¬ 
selves. Mexico will be a great mining 
country, rivalling the United States in the 
production of silver. 



Fig. 237. — A Mexican burro carrying heavy sacks. 











194 


NORTH AMERICA 


Much gold, copper, lead, and zinc are also 
found, and recently great quantities of 
petroleum have been found on the coastal 
plain, as in Texas and Louisiana. A large 
amount of iron is known to exist in several 
parts of the country. At one place, near 
Dcjrango, there is an iron mountain which 


There are no large manufacturing towns 
such as we find in many parts of the United 
States; but Mexico is making rapid prog¬ 
ress. There is much water power where 
the streams descend from the plateau, and 
this is being used for producing electricity. 
Railroads, too, have been built in many 



2. Difficulties 
in the develop¬ 
ment of mining 


contains an enormous amount of 
very rich ore. Here blast furnaces 
have been erected, for the manufac¬ 
ture of steel rails and other iron 
goods. Find this city on the map. 

One great obstacle to mining in Mexico 
is the. lack of good coal. Another is the 
lack of easy transportation. 

A third is the fact that 
much of the region cannot 
easily be explored for ore. 

In fact, some parts of the country are still 
occupied by ti-ibes of savage Indians, who 
not only prevent miners from coming in, 
but even defy the government. Still an¬ 
other difficulty is the old-fashioned methods 
of mining employed by many of the Mexi¬ 
cans. Some of these are the same as those 
used by the Indians centuries ago. But 
the methods are being improved, for many 
of the leading mines are now owned by 
Europeans, Americans, or educated Mexi¬ 
cans. Mining will rapidly develop in 
Mexico when conditions become more 
stable. Fibers are the second export in im¬ 
portance, and coffee the third. 

Because of the ignorance of the 
working people, and the scarcity of 

„ , x . coal, there is not a 

Manufacturing . . , P 

great deal ot manu¬ 
facturing in Mexico; and that which 
is done is largely carried on by hand. 

Some of this hand work is very 
beautiful, for even the uneducated Mexicans 
are quite artistic. 

There are large tobacco factories in the 
tobacco district, and smelters in the mining 
regions. Some earthenware is also manu¬ 
factured, and some cotton cloth. Indeed, 
cotton manufacturing is growing rapidly in 
importance, the cotton used being that 
which is grown in Mexico. More money 
is now invested in cotton mills than in any 
other form of manufacturing. 


Fig. 238. — Coffee tree and berries growing in the shade of 
higher trees. 


parts of the republic. The total mileage 
of Mexican railroads is slightly less than 
16,000 miles, or almost exactly that of the 
state of Texas. 

Wherever possible, the Mexicans have col¬ 
lected in cities or towns (Fig. 239). This 
has been necessary in many Leading cities 
sections in order to obtain the p i n the 
water supply needed for irri- interior 
gation. It is usually too great a task for a 
single farmer to build a ditch; and there- 





COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


195 



Fig. 239. — A view of Leon, one of the cities on the plateau of Mexico. Notice how low the houses are. 

Most of them are one-story adobe buildings. 


fore a number combine and thus live close 
together. 

There are a few large cities, the greatest 
being the capital, Mexico City (Fig. 240), 


built on the site of an ancient Aztec Indian 
city. It is situated on a high plateau and 
therefore, although so far south, has a cool 
climate. In this city, as elsewhere in Mex- 















196 


NORTH AMERICA 



2 . Central America 


Names of the 
countries and 
their govern¬ 
ment 


Of the six Central American 
republics, the smallest is Sal¬ 
vador; the next, 

Costa 11 i c a. 

Nicaragua, Hon¬ 
duras, and Guate¬ 
mala are about equal in size. 

These are all in North America; 
but the Republic of Panama is 
partly in North America and 
partly in South America. It 
has a special interest for us. Why (p. 170) ? 

These six countries are independent of 
each other, and each has a form of govern- 
ment modeled after that of the United 
States. In addition to these countries, on 
the eastern side of the Yucatan Peninsula 
is British Honduras (or Belize), a colony of 
the United Kingdom. 

The inhabitants of the Central American republics 
are mainly Indians, Spaniards, and half-breeds. The 
Ch* S reat nia i orit y are uneducated, and 

the people n ' a,iy are eVen uncivilized - Largely 

* on account of the ignorance of the 

people these countries are not good examples of 


Fio. 241. — Loading bananas on a banana plantation in Costa Rica. The 
bananas are then taken to the coast and placed* on steamers to be 
shipped to the United States. 


San Salvador, the capital of Salvador, was so 
frequently destroyed by earthquakes that the inhabit¬ 
ants decided to choose a new location for their city; 
but this is scarcely better than the old one. 

Since these countries lie in the tropical zone, the 
climate is hot. The rainfall is heavy, especially on 
the eastern coast, where there are dense jungles. 

A large portion of these countries is occu¬ 
pied by dense tropical forests, from which 
are obtained mahogany, rose¬ 
wood, logwood, fustic, and The P roducts 
other valuable cabinet and dye woods. The 
rubber tree also grows here, and the produc¬ 
tion of rubber is an important industry. 


ico, there are many fine churches and other 
notable buildings. Another city in the 
interior of Mexico is Puebla, founded in 
1531. It also is situated near one of the 
ancient cities, or pueblos, of the Aztecs. 
Guadalajara and San Luis Potosi are 
important interior cities. Locate these. 

Since the eastern coast of Mexico is low 
and sandy, it has no good harbors. The 

two largest cities 
2. On the coast there are Xam _ 

pico and Vera Cruz, whose 
harbors are protected by break¬ 
waters. There are some good 
harbors on the western coast. 

One of these is Acapulco, 
but since it is backed by 
high mountains and a thinly 
settled country, that port has 
never become of much im¬ 
portance. 


republics. An ambitious general, finding a few 
followers, may at any time try to overturn the gov¬ 
ernment. There has been rebellion after rebellion 
in these nations; presidents have been driven away 
or murdered; and the countries have quarreled with 
one another. 

Most of Central America is mountainous, and is 
subject to volcanic eruptions and to 
earthquakes of great violence. The a ^ainn° 
earthquake shocks have leveled e g 
towns and killed thousands of people. For instance, 









COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 


197 



As in Mexico, coffee is raised on the 
hill slopes in the shade of the forest trees. 
Costa Rica is one of the most important 
coffee-producing districts (Fig. 242). Ba- 


Fig. 242.—Drying coffee berries in Costa Rica. There are 
berries here spread out in the sun to dry. After they 
husk is removed and the bean is then shipped away. 

nanas (Fig. 241), sugar, tobacco, indigo, 
and cocoa are other products. 

Some gold and silver are obtained, the former 
near Bluefields, the latter in Honduras. Manu¬ 
facturing is little developed. 

The largest city in Central America is New 
Guatemala, the capital of Guatemala. This city, 
which was formerly situated at the 
The leading base of two very active volcanoes, 

Clt y was changed to a safer site; hence 

the name New Guatemala. 


With the exception of the Bahamas, they 
are also known as the Antilles. Those on 
the north, including the larger ones, are 
called the Greater Antilles; and those on 
the south, the Lesser Antilles. 

Two of the Greater An¬ 
tilles have already been de¬ 
scribed (p. 167). The Greater 
What do you re- Antilles 
member about them ? 

South of Cuba lies the island 
of Jamaica, the third in size in 
the West Indies, x Jamaica 

and a possession (i) Government 
of Great Britain, and people 
The inhabitants are mainly 
either negroes or mulattoes, 
there being fully forty blacks 
to one white person. 

This island is mountainous 
in the center, but has excellent 
soil on the lower 

slopes and in the valleys, and ^ Products 
is very productive. The chief occupation 
is agriculture, and the women are employed 
in outdoor work as much as the men. One 
of the main products is sugar cane. Early 
vegetables and fruits, such as oranges 
and bananas (Fig. 243), are also raised. 
Jamaica ginger, of which every one has 
heard, is obtained from the root of a plant 
that grows in this island. 


tons of coffee 
are dried, the 


3 . The West Indies (see the Map, Fig. 205) 

A chain of islands reaches from the 
Yucatan and Florida peninsulas to the 

Location and '" out1 ' of the 0,inOCO River 
names of the on the South .American coast. 

groups of These islands inclose the Carib- 
lslands bean § ea . anc ], also, with the 

aid of the peninsulas of Florida and \ 11 cat an, 
the Gulf of Mexico. All of this archipelago, 
excepting the Bahamas, lies entirely within 
the tropical zone. 

These islands, scores of which are very 
small, are called the West Indies, because 
Columbus thought he had reached India. 


The climate and scenery are very attractive, and 
many people from the United States go thei-e for a 
part of the winter. Regular ocean steamers carry 
passengers, together with great quantities of tropical 
fruits and vegetables. 

As in other islands of the West Indies, earth¬ 
quakes are common. One of these, 
in 1900, caused great destruction in ( ^ art qua es 
Kingston, the capital and leading city. 

Haiti was the first large island discov¬ 
ered by Columbus, and on it he made settle¬ 
ments and opened mines. Like 2. Haiti 
the other Greater Antilles, this (l) Government 
became an important Spanish colony; but 
Spain lost one island after another, the last 
to go being Cuba and Porto Rico (p. 167). 







198 


NORTH AMERICA 




Haiti has long been independent, and there 
are now two republics in the island — Haiti 
and Santo Domingo. The cap¬ 
ital of the former is Port au 
Prince ; and of the latter, 

Santo Domingo. They are 
very progressive republics, and, as in 
Central America, revolutions are very 
common. Most of the inhabitants are 
negroes and half-breeds, descendants 
of the slaves of the Spanish settlers; 
but there are more white people 
in Santo Domingo, which is more 
progressive than Haiti. 

Many of the natives obtain their 
living in the most primitive fashion, 
like the negroes of 

(2) Products » r • i ,,1 

Africa; but others, 

especially near the seacoast, are 

engaged in raising sugar, tobacco, 

coffee, and bananas. There are 

valuable woods covering much 

of the island, and some mineral « 

wealth ; but little is done with 

these resources. 

Most of the islands among 
the Lesser Antilles are posses¬ 
sions of Great 
Britain, though some belong 
to other nations. For in¬ 

stance, Martinique and Guade¬ 
loupe belong to France ; St. Thomas and 
St. Croix to the United States; and some 
to Holland. The products of the Lesser 
Antilles are similar to those of the other 
West Indies, the most important 


Fig. 243. —Bananas as they grow, 
hanging in great bunches from 
the broad-leafed banana tree. 


North of Haiti and Cuba are several 
hundred small islands called the Bahamas, 

which be¬ 
long to Great 
Britain. A 
number of 
these are in¬ 
habited, and 
on one is 
situated the 
city of Nas¬ 
sau. 


These islands, like the coast 
of southern Florida (p. 84), have 
j been made by 
coral polyps. One 
of the products is 
the sponge, which 
grows in the clear, 
warm waters of the 
Bahama banks. To 
obtain sponges, the 
inhabitants either 
cruise about in boats, raking them 
up, or they dive into the clear water, 
tearing them from the bottom. 

On the land, early vegetables, 


not 


The Bahamas 

1. Government 
and chief city 

2. How the 
islands were 
made; also 
occupations and 
products 


The Lesser 
Antilles 

(1) Government 
and products 


being 


sugar cane. 


are raised by the inhabitants, who 
are chiefly negroes. One of the in¬ 
dustries, as on the neighboring coast of Florida, is 


These small islands are volcanic cones. Most of 
the volcanoes are now extinct, but in Martinique 
and in St. Vincent there have been 
^and carth° eS violeut volcanic outbursts. One of 
quakes *" ^ ie ,nost terrible volcanic eruptions 
ever recorded occurred in Martinique 
in 1902. After being quiet for about fifty years, 
Mont Pelee (Fig. 244) suddenly burst forth and 
completely destroyed the beautiful city of St. Pierre, 
which was situated at its base (Fig. 245). In a few 
seconds all of the inhabitants, over twenty-five thou¬ 
sand people, were killed by the cloud of steam and 
hot ash which descended upon them. 


Copyrighted 1902, by William ff. Raw. 
Fig. 244. — A view of Mont Pelee. When this picture 
was taken a small eruption was just beginning, and 
the steam and ash .are seen rising from the crater. 





COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED ST A TES 


199 



Fig. 245.—The ruined city of St. Pierre after the terrible volcanic eruption of 1902. 


caring for winter visitors. Why should people 
wish to go thex-e? 


Location and 
climate 


4. The Bermudas (Fig. 8) 

Far out in the Atlantic, six hundred miles east of 
the Cai'olinas, and alone in mid-ocean, is a cluster of 
islands, known as the Bermudas. 
The. largest is only fifteen miles long 
and one or two miles wide. Being 
in the open ocean, and suiTounded by warm ocean 
currents, these islands have a delightful and equable 
climate. In midwinter, when people in the same 
latitude in the United States ai'e shivei'ing with 
cold, those in the Bermudas are able to sit out of 
doors in comfort, both day and night. 

This group of islands, which belongs to Great 
Britain, is inhabited mainly by negroes and mulat- 

, , toes, who 

People and 

occupations 


are engaged in raising 


early vegetables for the American 
market, especially potatoes and on¬ 
ions. Another important product is the Easter lily, 
great fields of which are cultivated for the Easter 
season. Many persons from the United States are 
attracted here every winter, most of whom stay in 
the largest city, Hamilton. 


Mexico: Questions. 1. Give some facts about 
the history of Mexico. 2. Explain about the four 
sections in Mexico that have different altitudes. 


3. Tell about its rivers. 4. Its coast line and har¬ 
bors. 5. Its climate. 6. What are the products 
from the forest trees, and other na¬ 
tive plants ? 7. What agricultural Review Ques- 
products are obtained by irrigation? ^ ons an< ^ 

8. Describe the farming methods Suggestions 
and the home life in the arid lands. 9. Where is 
ranching carried on? What animals are raised? 
10. What products are obtained from the lower 
humid lands? 11. What about the extent of min¬ 
erals in Mexico ? 12. Mention several difficulties in 
the development of mining there. 13. What is the 
condition of manufacturing? 14. Name and locate 
the leading cities in the- interior. 15. On the coast. 

Suggestions. 16. Find out why coffee raising 
requires special care. 17. Find an article of furni¬ 
ture made of mahogany. 18. Walk toward Mexico 
City. 19. What reasons can you give for its loca¬ 
tion? 20. Who is the president of Mexico? 
21. Make a sketch map of Mexico. 

Central America : Questions. 22. Name the 
countries here, and tell their form of government. 
23. What is the character of the people. 24. De¬ 
scribe the region. 25. What are the products? 
26. Name and locate the leading city. 

Suggestions. 27. What disadvantages do you 
see in the lack of a central government for all the Cen- 
ti-al American republics ? 28. In what other ways, 
besides saving coal, will the canal across Panama 
prove of advantage? Let a committee be appointed 











200 


NORTH AMERICA 



from your class to obtain definite facts about the 
matter. 29. Why will harbors at each end of the 
canal be necessary? 30. Make a sketch map of 
Central America. 

The West Indies and the Bermudas: Ques¬ 
tions. 31. Locate the West Indies, and give the 
names of their principal groups. 32. Tell what you 
can about the government, people, and products of 
Jamaica. 33. The earthquakes there. 34. What can 
you tell about Haiti ? 35. State 
important facts about the 
Lesser Antilles. 36. About 
the Bahamas. 37. How are 
the Bermudas important? 

Locate them. 

Suggestions. 38. How 
does each of the largest four 
of the West Indies compare 
in area and population with 
New York State? (See tables 
in Appendix, pp. 451 and 453.) 

39. Find out more about the 
eruption of Mont Pelee. 


ered by the Great Glacier (p. 13) ? Mention 
some of its important effects (pp. 14-15). 

In what ways has the sinking or rising of 
the coast been important (p. 15)? State 
the present size and shape of the continent 
(p. 16). Show the importance of its posi¬ 
tion (p. 16). 


VII. Review of 
North America 

The natural advan¬ 
tages that North America 


The story of possesses as Fig. 246.— Distribution of population in the United States (1910). 


our continent a home for 

man have been the result of slow changes 

extending through millions of years. 

How has our coal been formed (p. 4) ? 
How about other minerals (p. 8) ? 

What great mountain systems have been 
produced (p. 8) ? What about their 


Describe the plants and animals of the Far 
North (p. 18). Of our arid West (p. 20). 
What about the plants and its plants, 
animals in other parts of the animals, and 
temperate zone (p. 21) ? peoples 

About those of the torrid zone (p. 23) ? 



Fig. 247. —The six states with largest population (1910). 


height? What are the names of the prin¬ 
cipal ranges in the Cordillera? What do 
you know about the formation of the Mis¬ 
sissippi Valley (p. 10) ? 

What portion of the continent was cov- 


Describe the manner of life of the Indians 
(p. 26). Why did they never become 
more powerful (p. 27) ? 

What European nations tried to obtain 
possession of large portions of this continent 






























REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


201 


(p. 28)? Give some reasons why the Eng¬ 
lish succeeded most fully (p. 31). 

i. The United States 

At present there are probably as many as 
a hundred and forty million persons living 



Fig. 248. — Map showing distribution of cities (1919) 


in North America, distributed among the 

„ , .. four chief sections as follows: 

Population _ . „ 

, ^.. „ Central America, over hve 

1. Distribution 

of people in million ; Canada, over eight 
North America m pp on . Mexico, over fifteen 

million ; and the United 
States (not including de¬ 
pendencies), more than 
one hundred two million 
(Fig. 24C). From these 
figures it is clear that 
about three fourths of 
all the inhabitants of 
the continent are living 
in the United States. 

Figure 246 shows more 
clearly than Figure 248 
o —.. , ., .. the density 

2. Distribution J 

of people in ot popula- 
United States tion in t he 

different parts of the 
Union. Where are the 
most thickly settled por¬ 
tions? The most sparsely 


settled ? How can you explain such dis¬ 
tribution (p. 36)? Name in their order 
the six states having the greatest popula¬ 
tion (Fig. 247). Find the center of popu¬ 
lation (star in Fig. 246). 

Figure 248 gives the location of the cities, 
the largest having the largest 
dots. In the Ap- „ „ . 

\ 3. Number in 

pendix (p. 453) is cities, and in 

a table of the 
twenty-five largest cities. Find 
the dots (Fig. 248) that repre¬ 
sent several of these. In what 
respect are the two figures (246 
and 248) alike ? 

The great cities are so numer¬ 
ous, and have been so often 
mentioned, that there is danger 
of valuing them too highly, as 
compared with the country. 
At the time of George Wash¬ 
ington very few people lived in 
cities. Even at present about 
two thirds of our 102,000,000 
inhabitants live either in the country, 
or in towns with a population of less than 


eight thousand, 
the proportion 
is still greater. 


In Mexico and Canada 
living in the country 
In other words, the great 



Fig. 249. — Map showing the regions of corn production in the United States (1910). 


















202 


NORTH AMERICA 


majority of persons in North America are 
country people. 

There are over five million families 
occupying farms in the United States. 


also extensively engaged in the wheat in¬ 
dustry. Figure 251 shows the principal 
wheat regions. Where are they ? What 
can you tell about wheat in the valley of 



Iowa 

Missouri 




$157,629,000 
414,812,000 Bushels 


Texas 

Indiana 


$123,793,000 

$120,516,000 

273,900,000 

$114,206,000 

181,280,000 

Kansas 

343,870,000 

$80,486,000 

201,216,000 

$76,095,000 

169,100,000 













Fig. 250. —The six leading corn-producing states (1910). 



About how many persons does that repre¬ 
sent ? Why should so many people live on 
farms ? The leading occupations of persons 
living outside of the 
cities are agriculture, 
lumbering, fishing, and 
mining. The most im¬ 
portant of all is agricul¬ 
ture. 

Figure 249 shows the 
regions that are most 
Agriculture extensively 
l. Grains engaged in 
raising corn. What 
states are included ? In 
1910 over two and a half 
billion bushels were pro¬ 
duced ; how many bushels 
is that for each of our in¬ 
habitants? How is corn 
cultivated, and what are 
its uses (p. 108) ? Which 
are the six leading states in corn production, 
and how do they rank (Fig. 250) ? 

Many of the states that raise corn are 


the Red River of the North (p. 109) ? What 
are the uses of wheat ? What states on the 
Pacific coast produce wheat ? Name the six 


Fig. 251.—The wheat regions of the United States (1910). 


leading wheat states in the order of their 
importance (Fig. 252). 

Corn and wheat are our most valuable 


Minnesota 


$88,435,000 

Kansas 

South Dakota 




94,080,000 Bushels 

$52,137,000 

62,068,000 

Indiana 

North Dakota 

Nebraska 

$41,581 oon 

( 

46,720,000 

$35,653,000 

40,981,000 

$32,494,000 

36,105,000 

$31,612,000 

35,124,000 

wy 






MI 



• 


Fig. 252. — The six leading wheat-producing states (1910). 




















































REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


203 


food crops. Why is so little of either raised 
in the western half of the United States 



Fiq. 253. — The cotton-producing states (1910). 


(p. 134) ? Why so little in New England 
(p. 47) ? What other grains do we raise, 
and for what is each used ? 


According to Figure 250 what states are largely 
engaged in tobacco growing ? What 
is the appearance of the plant, and ' Tol)acco 
how is it prepared for use (p. 02) ? 

Name fruits and vegetables that are extensively 
raised in the United States. Figure 257 shows the 
sections that produce large quantities 
of fruit. What fruits are grown along * Fruits and 

the coast of the Middle Atlantic m S' tat > les 
States (p. 03)? In Florida, Cuba, and Porto Rico? 

Why is the region near the Great Lakes especially 
suited to fruit raising (p. 110) ? What fruits are ex¬ 
tensively grown there (p. 110) ? Why is truck farm¬ 
ing especially important in New England (p. 48) ? 
Where are early vegetables extensively raised 
(pp. 63 and 89) ? 

Name and locate the principal irrigated sections 
in our Western arid lands (Fig. 258). What are 
their products (pp. 143-147) ? 

Following are three figures showing the principal 
states from which other important farm products 
come: — 

IIow does the value of hay (Fig. 259) in New 
York compare with that of corn in 5 other leading 
Iowa, and of wheat in Minnesota? farm products 


Texas 


3,140,000 Bales of 500 lb. 

Georgia 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

South Carolina 

Oklahoma 


1,750,000 


• 

1,174,000 

1,160,000 

1,116,000 

900,000 


Fig. 254.—The six leading cotton-producing states (1910). 


The cotton belt is confined entirely to the 
southeastern portion of the country, as 
2. Cotton, shown in Figure 253. Why? 
sugarcane, Name the principal 


Note that the states raising most corn (Fig. 250) 
correspond rather closely with those raising most 
hogs (Fig. 260). Why is that? Name the six lead¬ 
ing dairy states (Fig. 261). 


and rice 


cotton-raising states 


Colorado 


and give their rank (Fig. 254). 
What do you know about the 
growth and uses of cotton 
(pp. 86 and 87) ? 

Where in these states are 
sugar cane and rice grown ! 
How is each cultivated (pp. 87 
and 88) ? 


Hawaii 


Porto Rico Louisiana 


Philippines 



Texas 11,000 


!T n wr flooe 1 mi i si arm Fig. 255. —The six leading sugar-producing sections in the United States and 
Row does uouisiana its dependencies. Colorado, beet sugar; others, cane sugar (1910). 

rank with our dependencies in 


the production of sugar cane (big. 255)? 
What are the other sources of sugar ? 
Where is beet sugar produced (p. 87) ? 


Point out, on the map (Fig. 40), the 
portions of the country largely given up 
to grazing. Why these ? Relate how cattle 











































204 


NORTH AMERICA 



Fig. 257. — Map sliowiug the leading fruit-growing regions of the United States. 


(pp. 50 and 94) ? What states produce 
the greatest amount of lumber at present 


About four hundred 

thousand men in our 

country are 

17 Mining 

employed in 

mining. How many 
different metals can you 
name ? How many other 
mineral products can 
you mention ? 

Of all the minerals, 
the fuels are probably 
the most 
important. 

Why ? What kinds are 
there? Figure 268 
shows how extensive the coal beds are. 
Name the states in which the greatest 


1. The fuels 


ranching is carried on (p. 112); filso sheep 
ranching (p. 147). Which states are most 

important 
6. Grazing . ,, 

m these in¬ 
dustries (Figs. 262- 
263) ? What are the 
uses of ranch cattle 
(p. 123)? Of sheep 
(p. 148)? In which 
states are most horses 
raised (Fig. 264) ? 

Figure 265 shows the 
distribution of the for¬ 
ests in the 
lumbering United 

States. Describe the 
industry as it is carried 
on in Maine (p. 42), 
in the Southern States 
(p. 85); in Wisconsin 
(p. 115) ; in the North¬ 
west (p. 139). Why 
these differences? 

Which are the most common kinds of trees 
in each section (Fig. 265)? What are the 
products of the forests besides lumber 


(Fig. 265) ? Where are the leading forest 
reserves (p. 140) ? Of what value are they ? 


Fig. 256. —Map showing the tobacco-producing states (1910). 


In what sections is fishing especially important 
(Fig. 267)? What fish are caught on our Eastern 
coast (p. 46)? On our Pacific 
coast? Tell what you can about the ® 

fishing industry in Alaska. 
Describe how cod fishing is 
carried on (p. 46) ; salmon 
fishingj (p. 141) ; the oyster 
industry (p. 61). 






























REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


205 


quantities of coal are mined (Fig. 209). 
Of what importance is it that there are coal 



Fig. 258.— Irrigation projects in the United States (1910). 

fields in so many parts of the country ? 
What kinds of coal are there ? What 
are the differences between them (p. 5)? 


the mineral products. Why so important? 
Where are the principal iron-producing re¬ 
gions (Fig. 208) ? How is pig 
iron made (p. 07)? Why is 
not the Lake Superior district a favorable 
place for smelting iron ore? Name the six 
states that lead in production of iron ore 
(Fig. 270). 

Describe three methods of gold mining 
(p. 136). What can you tell about gold 
and silver mining in Cali- 3 . Precious 
fornia and Colorado (p. 137)? metals 
In what other parts of our country are the 
precious metals found (Fig. 271)? How 
does the value of the gold produced in the 
six leading states (Fig. 272) compare with 
that of the silver in the six leading states 
(Fig. 273) ? 

What states are most noted for copper mining 
(Fig. 271)? Describe that industry in the two 
leading sections (pp. 118 and 138). 4 0ther m - n 
Where and how is stone quarrying eral products 
carried on in New England (p. 45) ? 

IIow is salt obtained in New York (p. 64) ? What 
other valuable mineral products can you name 
(pp. 67, 92, 119, 137)? 


New York 


$87,009,000 

6,351,000 Tons 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Illinois 


$66,495,000 

.4,443,000 


Iowa 

$49,350,000 

3,948,000 

$45,832,000 

3,370,000 

$44,604,000 

3,717,000 

$36,288,000 

3,780,000 

Wk - ' '■= 


















Fig. 259. —The six leading liay-producing states (1910). 


Iowa 


Illinois 


Describe a coal mine (p. 65). What are 
the uses of coal ? 

Name the chief sections in which petro¬ 
leum and natural gas are found (Fig. 271). 
Tell also how they, have been produced 
and what 
their uses 
are (p. 66). 

The ores 
of iron 
among 
most 
portant 



The four occupations that have been 

named furnish the raw materials for our 

food, clothing, and shelter. In ^ 

. P „ Occupations of 

the mam, these tour occupa- coun t ry and 

tions, as stated, lead people to of city 


Missouri 


Nebraska 


$36,182,639 

4,683,577 

$31,878,568 

4,429,429 

$29,642,092 

3,434,938 

$24,681,180 

2,997,319 

Indiana 

$23,739,586 

3,613,906 







Fig. 2(1(1. — The six leading hog-producing states (191U). 


























































206 


NORTH AMERICA 


New York 



Wisconsin 

Iowa 

Minnesota 

Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

783,479,286 Gallons 

667,497,765 

489,563,616 

407,020,500 

411,735,240 

395,934,071 














Fig. 261. —The six leading milk-producing states (1910). (Based on statistics giving number of dairy cows and 

production per cow.) 



Fig. 262. — The six leading cattle-producing states (1910). 


Wyoming Montana 



Iowa 

Illinois 





$177,658,734, 

1,489,225 

$163,062,351 

1,450,406 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

Ohio 



$113,707,841 

1,070,913 

$112,543,535 

1,144,870 

$102,706,582 

1,006,550 

$98,853,108 

910,271 




















Fig. 264. — The six leading horse-producing states (1910). 


4,097,492,000 

3,733,900,000 

Board Feet 

Board Feet 

Washington 

Louisiana 

Principal Species, 

Principal Species, 

Douglas Fir 

Yellow Pine 


2,122,205,000 

2,084,633,000 

1,891,291,000 

Board Feet 

Board Feet 

Board Feet 

Mississippi 

Oregon 

Wisconsin 

Principal Species, 

Principal Species, 

Principal Species, 

Yellow Pine 

Douglas Fir 

Hemlock 


Iig. 265. — The five leading lumber-producing states (1910). 































































































208 


NORTH AMERICA 


live in small towns or in the country. I he 
three other great occupations require per¬ 
sons engaged in them to live for the most 


part in cities. These are manufacturing; 
the transportation of goods; and buying 
and selling, or trading. 

Figure 274 shows the principal manufac¬ 
turing sections in the United States. What 
groups of states do they include ? How 
... does it happen that New Ensr- 
land very early developed 
cotton manufacturing, although it raises no 
cotton (p. 49) ? What other kinds of 
manufacturing are important there (p. 50) ? 


Name several of the leading manufacturing 
centers there, and tell the kinds of work in 
each. What states lead in textile manufac¬ 
tures (Fig. 2 75)? 
Where are the cotton 
and wool obtained ? 

What kinds of manu¬ 
facturing are very im¬ 
portant in the Middle 
Atlantic States, aside 
from textile goods 
(p. 67) ? What great 
advantage over New 
England have those 
states for manufacturing 
(p. 64) ? What reasons 
can you give why Penn¬ 
sylvania leads in iron 
manufacturing (p. 66) ? 
How are iron and steel 
made (p. 67) ? Name 
three kinds of iron 
(p. 68). Name the six 
leading states in the 
production of pig iron 
(Fig. 276). In iron man¬ 
ufacturing (Fig. 277). 

Tell about the manu¬ 
facture of pottery in 
the Middle Atlantic 
(p. 69) and in the Cen¬ 
tral (p. 120) States; 
about the manufacture 
of glass (p. 69) ; of ce¬ 
ment (p. 70); of bricks 
(p. 69). 

Tell about the advance 
in manufacturing in the Southern States 
(p. 93). What great advantage does 
Birmingham enjoy for the manufacture of 
iron goods (p. 94) ? Name other impor¬ 
tant kinds of manufacturing in the Southern 
States (p. 94). What are the leading man¬ 
ufacturing centers there, and for what 
goods is each important ? 

Into what goods are corn, wheat, and 
barley manufactured in the Central States 
(p. 119) ? Njyne the great centers for the 

































REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


209 


manufacture of flour (p. 126). What can 
you tell about the manufactures from forest 
products in the Central 
States (p. 119) ? For 
what kinds of manufac¬ 
turing is Chicago impor¬ 
tant (p. 122) ? St. Louis 
(p. 126) ? Cleveland 
(p. 125) ? Kansas City 
(p. 127)? 

How has the abun¬ 
dance of fruits in the 
Western States led to 
much manufacturing 
(p. 146) ? Name some 
flour-manufacturing 
center in the Far West 
(p. 151). Name impor¬ 
tant centers for smelting 
of ores (p. 151). For 
what manufactures is 
San Francisco important (p. 153) ? Port¬ 
land (p. 154) ? Seattle (p. 155) ? 

Pennsylvania 


the Pacific coast (pp. 152-155). Our seven 
leading ocean ports, in the order of their im- 



Anthracite Coat 
Bituminou* Coal 
t >4 Lignif 
L.vJ Iron 


Fia. 268. 


Map showing the distribution of deposits of coal and iron in the 
United States (1910). 



Fig. 269. — The six leading coal-producing states (1910). 

Manufacturing employs more workmen in the 
United States than any other industry, except agri¬ 
culture. More than seven million men are 
engaged in it. 

The six wealthiest states are shown in 
Figure 278. Note that all these states are 
extensively engaged in manufacturing, as 
shown in Figure 274. 

The importance of being able to ship 
goods by water is clearly shown by 
Transporta- the fact that most of 
tion of goods our twenty-five largest 
l. By water cities (see Appendix, p. 

453 ) are situated on a water route of some 
kind. Name the leading harbors along the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Name those on 


portance, are New York, Philadelphia, Bos¬ 
ton, Baltimore, New Orleans, Puget Sound, 
San Francisco (1917). Locate each. 

What can you say about the impor¬ 
tance of the Great Lakes for shipment of 
goods? How are these lakes connected 
by water with the ocean (p. 70) ? By 
examining Figure 279, name the prin¬ 
cipal navigable rivers in our country. 

The Great Lakes carry about twice as 
much freight as the Mississippi system. 
Mention some of the principal kinds 
carried on each. 

Locate the Erie Barge Canal. Why has it 

Minnesota 


N - Y Wis. v a . n.j. 



New York $3,848,683 
Wisconsin $3,610,349 
Virginia $1,845,144 
New Jersey $1,582,213 


1,287,209 

1,149,551 

903,377 

521,832 


Fig. 270. — The six leading iron-producing states (1910). 

been so important ? Why has it become of less 
importance than formerly ? Where else are 
canals found (pp. 121, 154-155, and 185) ? 







































*210 


NORTH AMERICA 



What about the direction 
of a majority of the railway 
lines? Count the number 
of railways that extend east 
and west across the western 
half of the continent (Fig. * 
280). In what city on the 
Pacific coast does each of 
the transcontinental lines 
terminate ? 

The number of miles of 
railroad that each section of 
states has, in proportion to 
its area, is shown in Figure 
282. The names of the 
principal railroads in the 
East are shown in Figure 
281. Note how the roads 
come together at the great 
centers of manufacturing 
and commerce. 


Figure 280 shows an enormous number of 
railways in the United States. They now 
. carry fully three times as much 

freight as all the water routes 
together. Tn what part of the country are 


Trade is the third occupation that attracts 
great numbers of people to Buying and 
cities. Every one knows that selling, or 
it is important to have stores trade 
scattered about over the country, in towns 



Fig. 272. — The six leading gold-producing states (1910). 


most of them found ? Why there ? Which 
section is next best supplied with them ? 
Which portion has fewest lines? How does 
the location of railway lines on this figure 
compare with the location of cities on 
Figure 248 ? 


and villages, where one can purchase the 
articles that he needs from day to day. 

But there could not well be such stores 
unless there were great centers of trade 
where the storekeepers themselves could 
buy the goods that they wished later to sell. 


Montana Utah 


$6,677,600 

12,366,000 Ounces 

$6,632,700 

12.282.900 

$5,640,800 

10,445,900 

Colorado 



$4,602,400 

Idaho 

Arizona 


8,523,000 

$3,794,600 

7,027,000 




$1,434,100 1 

2,655,700 




















Fig. 273. —The six leading silver-producing states (1910). 




































































REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


211 


This is called wholesale 
trade , and is one of the 
leading occupations in 
the great cities. 

The greatest center 
for the wholesale trade in 
our country is New York 
City. Describe that 
business there (p. 73). 

What goods are sold ? 

Name other great centers 
for wholesale trade, and 
some of the goods that 
are sold. What goods 
are extensively sold in 
New Orleans (p. 88) ? 

? In- 
129)? 

Denver (p. 150) ? 

Fully four million persons in the United agriculture, lumbering, fishing, and mining. 
States are engaged in transportation of The remainder are mainly employed in 


Memphis (p. 98) 
dianapolis (p. 



N ew York 


Pennsylvania 


$2,626,742,000 


Illinois 

Massachusetts 

Ohio 


$1,919,277,000 

$1,490,529,000 

$1,437,936,000 

$1,145,529,000 




Fig. 275. — Tlie six leadiug manufacturing states (1910). 



goods and in trade, or in commerce , as these 
two kinds of business together are called. 


Pennsylvania 



Ohio 


5,752,112 

Illinois 

Alabama 

New York 



2,675,646 

1,939,147 

1,938,407 

Va, 


manufacturing these raw materials into use¬ 
ful articles, or in buying, sell- Dependence of 
ing, and transport- country and 

ing them. Show cit y u P° n each 

i other 

by numerous ex¬ 
amples how neither class can 
well do without the other. 


Virginia 444,976 

Fig. 276. — The six leading pig-iron-producing states (1910). 


Although the two classes are so 
dependent on each other, the life of 
o„e is very different Differences jn 
from that of the other. manner o£ life 
Recall farm life as de¬ 
scribed on page 106. What idea have 


The relation between country and city is 
now clear. About one half of our men are 
engaged in obtaining raw materials through 


you formed of farm life on bouthern plantations ( 
Of the ranchman’s life (p. 114)? Of the miner’s 
manner of living (p. 136)? The lumberman’s 
(p. 43) ? The fisherman’s (pp. 47 and 141) ? 


















































212 


NORTH AMERICA 


Recall, on the other hand, what was said about 
life in New York City (p. 74). Give your idea of 


Pennsylvania 



Fig. 277. — The six states leading in iron manufacturing 

(1910). 


home ? How about the knives, forks, 
dishes, and spoons? How about the clothes 
that you wear ? 

Because of the climate, water power, soil, 
or for some other reason, each part of the 
country is especially fitted for producing 
one or several things; for instance, eastern 
Kansas for grain, western Kansas for stock, 
northern Maine for lumber, etc. Indeed, 
most of the articles used in each part of 
the country must be brought from other 
places. 


factory life; of life in trade and transportation. 
Which of these several occupations do you consider 
most attractive? Which least attractive? 


Name the materials that the Montana ranchman 
needs from the Southern planter; from New Eng¬ 
land; from Minneapolis and Chicago. Upon what 



It is difficult to say which occupation requires 
the hardest work, for success demands one’s best 
effort, no matter what the occupation may be. But 
which are more sure of simple food, clothing, and 
shelter, those living in the city or those in the 
country? Why? Which are 
more independent in general? 

Why ? Which have the better 
opportunities for amusement ? 

Why? For education ? Why? 

For homes with plenty of 
light and fresh air? Why? 

For many years the popula¬ 
tion of cities has been increas¬ 
ing more rapidly than that of 
the country, which suggests 
that people prefer city to coun¬ 
try life. Can you give any 
reasons for this, in addition 
to those already mentioned ? 

No one place produces 

Dependence aU the mate ’ 
of different rials needed 
sections upon there. Which 
one another of your foods 

are not raised near your 


parts of the United States are the inhabitants of 
Florida dependent? What do they supply in re¬ 
turn ? Make a list of the materials used in the build¬ 
ing of your house; and, as far as possible, determine 
where each one may have come from. 



Fig. 279. — Map to show the navigable interior water routes of the United States. 




















































213 


Fig. 280. — Map showing the railroads of the United States (1919). 

























































































214 



























































































































REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


215 



From these facts it is plain that the dif¬ 
ferent parts of the country are of vital im¬ 
portance to one another, much as different 
parts of the body are. 

In spite of our broad territory, and the 
enormous number of our products, there are 
Our relation some necessary ai tides that are 
to our depend- either entirely lacking, or can- 
encies not b e produced in sufficient 

quantities within 
our own borders. 

Name a few. (See 
Table of Imports, 
p. 446.) Mention 
some that we are 
therefore glad to re¬ 
ceive from Alaska; 

Cuba ; Porto Rico ; 
the Hawaiian Is¬ 
lands ; the Philip¬ 
pines. Mention others that they, likewise, 
are glad to receive from us. State, then, 
how the United States and its dependencies 
are of advantage to each other. 

2 . Other Countries of North America 

The principal industries in southern 
Canada and Newfoundland are similar to 
Canada and those in our Northern States. 
Newfoundland What about agriculture there 
(p. 183) ? Where is coal mined (p. 184) ? 
Precious metal (p. 184) ? What about 
grazing (p. 183)? Lumbering (p. 181)? 
Fishing and sealing (p. 182)? Compare 
the raw products of southern Canada 
with those of our Northern States. Name 
and locate the principal cities; the lead¬ 
ing trade route. Mention the chief 
kinds of manufacturing. (For above, see 

p. 186.) 

Describe the surface of Mexico (p. 190). 
The climate (p. 191). What are the agri¬ 
cultural products from its arid 
plateaus (p. 192 ) ? From its 
lowlands (p. 193) ? From the slopes be¬ 
tween (p. 193)? Tell about the forests of 
Mexico (p. 191); the mining (p. 194). 
Give some reasons why there is so little 


manufacturing in that country (p. 194). 
Locate the principal cities. 

Name the six republics of Central Amer¬ 
ica. Describe the surface of the country 
and the climate (p. 196). Central 
Name the principal industries America and 
(p. 197). Tell about the West Indies 

canal across the isthmus (p. 170). 

Mention the largest islands among the 


Fig. 282. — The figures represent the number of miles of railway for every one hundred square 
miles of territory in each of the five groups of states (1910). 

West Indies. What are their chief indus¬ 
tries (p. 197)? 

3 . Relation of United States to Other 
Countries 


Mexico 


Need of our 
sending away 
some goods 
and receiving 
others 


What industries in the United States are 
not found, or are little de¬ 
veloped, in Canada? In 
Mexico ? In Central Amer¬ 
ica ? What industries in any 
one of the latter countries are 
not found in the United States? 

As in the case of any single locality, the 
United States as a whole produces far more 
of some materials than our people can con¬ 
sume. Other important articles must come 
wholly, or in part, from abroad. Give ex¬ 
amples of each. 

If we could not secure a market for our 
products in foreign lands, we should suffer 
greatly ; and if foreign countries did not 
provide us with what we need, we should 
suffer again. Other countries are in the 
same condition. Show how that is true 
of Canada ; of Mexico. There is excellent 
reason, therefore, for a constant exchange 
of goods among the nations of the world. 






















216 


NORTH AMERICA 


How does the size of our country give us 
a great advantage in this respect ? 

The goods that we send forth are called 
exports , and those brought in, imports. Ex- 
The names of am i ne the tables of exports 
such goods, and imports on pp. 445 and 
and their 440 to see some things that we 
value send away and receive, as well 

as the countries with which we trade. 

About one half of all our exports and 
imports are sent by way of New York. 
Why ? Other ports next in importance 
have already been named (p. 209). What 
are their names ? The total value of our 
exports in 1918 was $5,929,285,641; of our 
imports, $2,946,059,403. 


Some imports are allowed to enter the country free; 

but upon most of them there is a duty; that is, a charge 

for entering our country. This duty 
Meaning and • ° f J f J 

° is a source ot income, or revenue , tor 

“duties ” the government. It is also intended 

to protect our industries by prevent¬ 
ing foreign products from being sold in our country 
at a lower rate than we can produce them. 

However, this sometimes causes hardship. For 
example, a citizen of the United States, living near 
the border of Canada, cannot buy lumber and wood 
pulp from that country without paying a duty upon 
them. This causes us to pay a higher price for many 
articles than we would have to pay if no duty were 
placed upon them. Under such conditions the bound¬ 
ary line between two neighboring countries becomes 
of real importance as a hindrance to free trade. 


4. Value of Steam and Electricity in Devel¬ 
opment of North America 

The use of steam upon the water ways 
and railways has been of the greatest i 11 - 
Advances fluence in the development 

made in a of our country. A century 
century ago required two days to 

travel from New York to Philadelphia, and 
six days from New York to Boston. In the 
latter case only two trips per week were 
made by stage. The journeys were not only 
very tiresome, but were often dangerous. 

At that time there were but thirteen 
daily papers in the United States, and 
neither papers nor books could be sent by 
mail. Letters cost from six to twenty-five 


cents, according to the distance ; and be¬ 
cause the expense of carrying them was 
great, they were not sent from the smaller 
towns until a sufficient number were col¬ 
lected to make it worth while. 

Now we can travel as far in an hour as 
our forefathers could in a day, and with 
much more comfort. There are thousands 
of daily papers, and these, as well as letters, 
may be sent quickly and cheaply to every 
section of the world. We can send a tele¬ 
gram, or wireless or cable, to a distant point 
in an instant, and can talk by telephone 
across the continent. Indeed, the wireless 
telephone is now being perfected. How 
wonderful these facts would have been to 
persons living a hundred years ago ! 


Influence of 
these advances 
on our mode of 
life 


The effect of such a mighty change is seen in 
every direction. Each year thousands of car loads 
of fruit are shipped to Eastern cities 
from California. If there were no 
railways, how could such fruits reach 
these cities? What, then, would be 
the effect on southern California ? 

Also, how could the corn of the Central States be 
marketed ? And how could furniture, sugar, and 
coffee be brought to the Western farmer’s door? 
Trace other results of this change. 

If our railway trains and steamboats should all 
suddenly stop running, there would be a famine in 
every large city within a few days. Even now, when 
heavy falls of snow block the trains for a day or 
two, the supply of milk, meat, and other foods 
quickly runs low, and the prices rise to several times 
their usual value. 

If we had no railway trains, there might also be 
extensive famines over large areas of country, as 
there were in Europe in the olden times, and as 
there are even at present in China. Why in China? 
As it is, however, hundreds of articles of food and 
clothing are quickly brought from distant points. 
Mention, several such articles. No one section is in 
danger of suffering from want of food, because if 
the supply fails there, it is easily obtained from 
other sections. 

The effect of steam and electricity on the indus¬ 
tries and inhabitants of cities is striking. Many 
persons living scores of miles away do much of 
their shopping in the cities. Owing to automobiles, 
electric and steam railways, and other means of rapid 
travel, those engaged in manufacture or commerce 
are able to live many miles from their places of 
work, and thus secure more healthful homes in 
the suburbs. Because so many people are able 



REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 


217 



* * 
/ aTT 4 

lj§ 

UJSA 


:iowa 


1ERRIT0RY 


PUKCHA 


tenn 


Annexetf 

iipii 


'•'quire. 


rlffi3? spute 
witfi-Spain 
1803 to 1819 

Scale of Miles, 


Their influence 
on government 


to have their homes in the suburbs, the cities are 
not nearly so overcrowded as they might other¬ 
wise be. 


When our Union was formed, more than 
a century ago, many wise persons believed 
that it was bound to be a fail¬ 
ure. Our population was so 
scattered (Fig. 43) that people 
living in one part were likely to know and 
care little about those in 
other distant parts. It 
seemed probable that 
quarrels and wars would 
arise, due to differences 
of opinion, and therefore 
that our republic might 
be split into several rival 
countries. 

Just the opposite has 
happened. Our people 
are closely united in in¬ 
terests, and are working 
well together. At the 
same time our boundaries 
have been so enlarged as 
to include far more ter¬ 
ritory than was at first 
thought possible (Fig. 


sent to all parts of the country. In all the 
states the people read the same news every 
morning ; and whatever books are found 
especially valuable in one section quickly 
become known in others. Thus we not 
only enjoy far better opportunities for 
education than formerly, but we learn to 
know one another ; we have the same 
thoughts, and we feel a common sym- 




119 


99° 


79° 


115 


111 


103 


Fig. 283. — Map to show when and how the United States obtained its territory. 


283). 


Aside from that, millions of foreigners 
have settled in our country since 1821, 
representing all the principal races of man¬ 
kind (App., p. 459), and many of the lead¬ 
ing languages, religions, and political beliefs 
of the world. In spite of all this, we have 
kept in such close touch with one another 
that our Union has grpwn stronger and 
stronger. 

Each day, by rail and water, articles are 


pathy. So far as meeting and under¬ 
standing one another are concerned, our 
country is really far smaller than it was a 
hundred years ago ; we are living together 
like one very large family. 

The government of Canada is a union of 
many states, much like our Union; and 
the benefits that it has received from steam 
and electricity have been similar to our 
own. 










































































PART II. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


I. The Earth 

The earth is a sphere with a circumfer¬ 
ence of about twenty-five thousand miles, 
Form and size and a diameter of nearly eight 
of the earth thousand miles. It is slightly 
flattened at the poles, however. For this 
reason, the line which extends through the 
center of the earth from pole to pole — 
called the earth's axis — is a little shorter 
than the diameter at the equator. 

The earth is known to be round like a 
ball, not only because people have traveled 
Proofs that around it, but also because its 
it is round shadow, as seen in an eclipse, 
is always round. A sphere is the only 
body that will always cast a round shadow. 
Can you give another proof that the earth 
has the form of a sphere ? 

The earth is rapidly turning, or rotating, 
about its axis. This motion has very im- 
lts daily mo- portant results. In the first 
tion, and the place it causes sunrise and 
results sunset. When we glance out 

of the window of a moving car, the objects 
that we pass often appear to be moving in 
the direction opposite from that in which 
we are traveling. It seems as though we 
were standing still. In a similar way the 
rotation of the earth causes the sun to ap¬ 
pear to move ; to appear to rise and set. 
Indeed, for a long time people believed 
that it was the sun that moved, and not 
the earth. 

Since we first see the sun in the east, it 
is plain that the earth is rotating eastward; 
that is, from west to east. This rotation 
gives us the light of the sun for a few 
hours, and then brings darkness. Thus it 


causes day and night. And since one ro¬ 
tation lasts twenty-four hours, it gives us a 
day of that length. 

It was stated before that the circumference of the 
earth is about twenty-five thousand miles. How far, 
then, must a point on the equator move in one hour ? 
In one minute ? 

By rotating a globe, or an apple, in the sunlight, 
show how day and night are caused on the earth. Hold 
the sphere still; what would be true about daylight 
and darkness on the earth if it did not rotate at all? 
What might be the effect upon life on the earth if 
the same side were always toward the sun ? 

The earth has another motion that is of 
very great importance. This is its revolu¬ 
tion around the sun, which is The yearly 
illustrated in Figure 284. The motion of the 
object shown in the center of earth 
the circle is the sun, as you see, and the 
circle itself shows the course that the earth 
takes in its revolution. 

At the same time that the earth is whirl¬ 
ing on its axis, it is also forever swinging 
around the sun, although the sun is 
ninety-three million miles from it. It takes 
a year to complete one revolution. Indeed, 
the time necessary for this great journey is 
what fixes the length of our year. The 
path, or orbit, that^ the earth takes is here 
represented as a circle, although, in fact, 
the earth’s path is not a perfect circle. 

In its revolution, the earth is moving at the rate 
of more than one and a half million miles per day. 
What fearful speed! And this, too, 
while it is whirling, or rotating, on I m P or tance of 
its axis ! One might ask, “ With ^ orces 
such rapid motion, why are we not cal * ed S ravit y 
swept from the earth by the wind?” a . S ravi t a ' 
The answer is that the air, as well 10n 
as everything else upon the earth, is drawn toward 
the earth and held in place by the force called grav - 



THE EARTH 


219 



ity. It is on account of this force that everything 
on the earth turns with it, in the daily rotation, and 
swings around with it in its annual revolution. 

Again, if the earth is revolving at such speed, why 
does it not fly away into space? As a stone swinging- 
round at the end of a string flies off when the string- 
breaks, so it might seem that 
the earth would fly off into 
space; for there appears to be 
nothing holding it to the sun. 

As a matter of fact, there is 
something holding it. It 
is not a string, 
nor a rope, to 
be sure, but 
something far 
stronger. The 
sun is very much 
larger than the 
earth; in fact, 
it is over 
a million 


the shadow, until the farthest point is 
reached on December 21. That is the date 
for our shortest day and longest night. 
Farther north the nights are longer still, 1 
and the Eskimos, who live within the Arc¬ 
tic Circle, are having 
night that lasts week 
after week. It is upon 
this date, also, that our 
winter begins. 

After De¬ 
cember 21, 
the Arctic 
region grad¬ 
ually conies 
into the light 
once more, 
until, on 
M a r c h 
21, the 
sun’s 
light again 
extends 
from pole to 
pole. Day 
and night 
are once 
more equal every¬ 
where upon the earth, 
and warmer weather 
returns. That date 
marks the beginning 
of our spring. 

Fio. 284. — To illustrate the revolution of the earth GointT farther oil 
around the sun. The shaded portion represents night. f ' ’ 

The revolution of the The end of the axis around which the earth rotates June 21, the north pole 

Effects of the earth is wliat is the P oint where the lines come to g ether - is shown to be just as 

far within the light as it was within the 
shadow on December 21. This is the date 
for our longest day and shortest night. 
Farther north, the days are longer still, 

and well within the Arctic Circle the day 

lasts week after week. It is upon this day, 
also, that our summer begins. 2 

1 Exactly at the north pole there are six months of 
day and then six months of night. 

2 Some teachers may wish to introduce here an ex¬ 
planation of the effects of inclination of the earth’s axis, 
and a more complete study of the seasons. This has 
not been included in this book because it is felt that, 


times as 
large. It 
attracts 
the earth, 
and holds it in 
place, in much 
the same way as 
the force of grav¬ 
ity attracts men 
and houses to the 
earth. This at¬ 
traction of gravita¬ 
tion, which the sun exerts 
upon the earth, is what pre¬ 
vents our sphere from flying 
off into space; it holds the 
earth as firmly as the string 
holds the stone. 


earth’s revo- causes our seasons and the chang- 
hdioa ing length of our day and night. 

In Figure 284 the lowest sphere, bearing 
the date September 23, represents the 
earth as receiving the light of the sun from 
pole to pole. On that date day and night 
are equal everywhere upon the earth. It 
marks the end of .summer and the begin¬ 
ning of our autumn. 

Following the earth in its revolution (to 
the right), we find that, as the months pass, 
the north pole falls farther and farther into 













220 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


After this date, until September 23, the 
continued revolution of the earth grad¬ 
ually brings the north pole again toward 
the shadow. Then, on September 23, the 
light of the sun once more extends from pole 
to pole, so that day and night are again equal, 
and a year is completed. 

Thus the seasons follow one another, and 
our days and nights constantly change in 


length. And it is all because, as the earth 
revolves about the sun, the part of the earth 
that receives the sun’s rays is continually 
changing. 

While these changes are in progress in the north* 
ern hemisphere, there are also changes in the season, 
and in the length of day and night, in the southern 
hemisphere. These changes are of the same kind, 
but the seasons are exactly changed around; that 
is, it is winter there when it is summer with us; 


unless the teacher has the necessary apparatus, a mere 
study from the text is too difficult. The authors believe 
that it is a subject that is better fitted for the high 
school age. 


and when the north pole is in darkness, the south 
pole is bathed in the sunlight. 

Figure 285 shows the zones on the earth. 
How many are there ? Name and locate 
each. The cause of the zones Cause of the 
is found in the slant at which zones, and 
the rays of the sun strike the their bounda- 
earth. In the torrid zone they nes 
are always either vertical, or nearly so. 


In the temperate zone, they strike the earth 
at a greater slant; and in the frigid zones 
at a much greater slant still; On this ac¬ 
count, the heat grows less and less as one 
approaches either of the poles. 

The boundaries of the tropical ( torrid ) zone are 
easily fixed, because they mark the points farthest 
north and south where the sun’s rays are vertical at 
some period of the year. On December 21, when the 
north pole is farthest within the shadow (Fig. 284), 
the sun’s rays are vertical as far south as the Tropic 
of Capricorn. On June 21, on the other hand, when 
the north pole is farthest within the light, the sun’s 
rays are vertical as far north as the Tropic of 
Cancer. 



Fig. 285. — A map of the zones. 



































































































LATITUDE , LONGITUDE , AND STANDARD TIME 


221 


The north frigid (Arctic) zone is the region 
around the north pole that lies entirely in 
darkness on December 21. On June 21, this 
same region lies entirely in the light. The 
south frigid zone is the corresponding region 
about the south pole. 

The two temperate zones are merely the 
wide belts that lie between the torrid zone, 
on the one hand, and the frigid zones on 
the other. There is one, called the north 
temperate zone , in the northern hemisphere, 
and another, called the south temperate 
zone, in the southern hemisphere. 

Name the boundaries of each of the zones. It is 
convenient to use such boundaries; but there is 
really no sharp difference on the two sides of any one 
of them. Indeed, the real boundaries are quite ir¬ 
regular (Fig. 285) ; for in some parts of the temper¬ 
ate zone there is a very hot climate; and on the 
highlands of the tropical zone, the climate is often 
temperate, or even frigid. These are exceptions, 
however, and generally the climate is torrid in the 
tropical zone, temperate to the north and south of 
it, and frigid around the poles. 


Our seasons are likewise due to the slant 
at which the sun’s rays strike the earth at 
How the different times of the year, 

earth’s revolu- On December 21, the midday 
tion causes our sun is low in the heavens, in 
seasons the re gj on where we live, and 

then its rays reach us at the greatest slant. 
That, then, marks the beginning of oui- 
coldest season. On June 21, on the other 
hand, the midday sun is high in the heavens, 
and the rays are then most nearly vertical. 
That, then, marks the beginning of our 
warmest season. Spring comes as the rays 
become more nearly vertical; and autumn 
as they grow less so. 

The revolution of the earth around the sun is, 
therefore, of the greatest importance. It causes our 
seasons by continually changing the 
ow the revo s i an t at which the sun’s rays fall 

U 1 m ^ S upon us. That affects us in a thou- 
our ai y ives sa|)C j wa y g . it determines, for in¬ 
stance, the time when our lamps shall be lighted, 
when crops shall be planted and harvested, and 
when the navigation of many of our rivers and lakes 
shall be opened and closed. It even leads to changes 
in the kind of clothes that we wear, and greatly 


influences the sports that we enjoy. Name some of 
its other influences. 

1. State the form and size of the earth. 2. Give 
proofs that it is round. 3. Tell what you can about 
its daily motion,- and the results. 

4. What is its yearly motion? eyi ®w 

5. How are gravity and gravitation ^ ues 10ns 
important forces? 6. State the effects of the earth’s 
revolution. 7. State the cause of the zones. 8. Of 
their boundaries. 9. How does the earth’s revolu¬ 
tion cause our seasons? 10. How, then, does this 
revolution influence our daily lives? 

1. Show by a globe, or a ball, how the two move¬ 
ments of the earth, rotation and revolution, can 
be going on at the same time. 

2. Are the days growing longer S u ?£ es t:um s 
or shorter at present? 3. During which months do 
they grow longer? During which months shorter? 
4. At what time of day does your shadow always 
point directly north? 5. Notice how your shadow 
changes with the season in early morning; at noon ; 
in the evening. 6. Tell about the direction and 
length of a man’s shadow at noon on December 21 
at various points between the poles. 7. On June 21. 
8. On September 23. 9. How long is our longest 

night? Our shortest? 10. Which zone has the 
slightest change of seasons? Why? 11. Is it once 
or twice each year that the vertical rays of the sun 
fall upon any one place in the torrid zone ? 


II. Latitude, Longitude, and Stand¬ 
ard Time 

i. Latitude and Longitude 

In a study of geography, it is often 
necessary to locate places exactly. This is 
not so easy as it might seem. Need of some 
For instance, suppose we wish way of locat- 
to state where London is sit- ing places 
uated ; how would it be done ? exactl y 
Of course, by taking a long time, it would 
be possible to describe the general location 
of this city ; but some more accurate way 
should be found. 

The difficulty is much the same as that 
which arises in locating a place in a large 
city, where there are thou- how houses 
sands of houses. No one per- are located 
son knows who lives in most in cities 
of them, and if a stranger were looking for 
a friend, he might have much trouble in 
finding his house. 



GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


909 


NORTH 


nmnn □□□[: 
innnanoc 

maacHt 
intTaQour 
WEST jffOa pOoc 
inEPiMX 

IPPPPPPl 

]nrrns Q nQ |- 


n 1—I'TTr 


i 4TH i 1 


'n r 


SOUTH 


the 

this 


Fig. 28(i. — Map of a part of a city, 
to illustrate tli© need of naming 
streets. 


A very simple means has been found for 
locating city houses. For example, a street 
running east and west maybe selected to di¬ 
vide the city into two parts, as Washington 

Avenue does in 
Figure 286. 
Any place north 
of this street is 
spoken of as be¬ 
ing on the north 
EAST side; any place 
south of it as 
being on the 
south side. The 
streets to 
north of 
central street 
are numbered 
as North 1st, 
North 2d, North 3d, etc. ; those to the 
south of it as South 1st, South 2d, South 3d, 
and so on. Then if a man says that he 
lives on North 4th Street, we know at once 
that he lives on the north side, and that 
his house is on the fourth street from this 
central one. 

But we need also to know on what part 
of North 4th Street this house is to be found. 
To answer that question, another street 
running north and south, and crossing the 
east and west ones, may be selected to di¬ 
vide the city into east and west parts. In 
Figure 286, Jefferson Avenue is such a 
street. The streets on the two sides of it 
are numbered as East 1st, East 2d, West 
1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 286). 

Then if a man lives on the corner of 
North 4th and East 3d streets, we know 
not only that his home is north of a certain 
line, but east of a certain other line. If the 
blocks , as the spaces between two streets 
are called, are always the same, it will be 
easy to tell the distance from each of the 
central streets to the house. Thus the 
house can be located exactly. 

Such a plan is not necessary in small towns and 
villages, because the people there know one another, 
and are able to direct strangers easily. Few, if any, 


cilies follow exactly the scheme here given; but all 
have a plan somewhat similar to this. If you live 
in a city, perhaps you can tell just how houses are 
located there. 


Places upon the earth are located in much 
the same manner as in the city just de¬ 
scribed. The equator , which How places 
extends around the earth mid- can be exactly 
way between the poles, cor- located on the 
responds to the dividing street eartt 

(Washington Avenue) that c Vb7iocated 
runs east and west. The dis- in a north and 
tance between the equator and south directl0n 
the poles, on either side, is divided into 
ninety parts (Fig. 287), corresponding, we 
might say, to the blocks in a city. The 
earth is so large, however, that these 
“blocks,” or parts, are very much larger, 
each being about sixty-nine miles wide. 
That distance is called a degree , and the 
sign for degrees is a little circle (°) placed 
at the right of a figure. ’(For example, 60° 
means 60 degrees.) 

Lines are drawn upon maps and globes 
to represent these degrees. The lines on a 



40 ° N L at 


23 tat. 
10° M Lat 


O 0 Lat. 
0 ° Lat 


20° S. Lat 
22/l°S Lot 


South 


S. Lat 
Laf. 

<o ,f 


Fig. 287.—The globe, showing the two hemispheres and 
some of the circles of latitude. 


globe extend completely around it from 
east to west, and are therefore circles. The 
first circle north of the equator, marked l°,is 
about sixty-nine miles from that dividing 
line; the one marked 2° is twice that dis¬ 
tance, and so on. The north pole is 90° 







LATITUDE , LONGITUDE , vf2VT> STANDARD TIME 


from the equator. The same plan is fol¬ 
lowed south of the equator; and the south 
pole is also 90° from the equator. Thus 
the distance from pole to pole is 180°. 

All points on any one of these circles are 
the same distance from- the equator, and 
from each of the other circles. That is, the 
circles are parallel with one another; and 
on that account they are called parallels. 

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th or 
the 50th, or some other circle north of the equator, 
he knows how many miles it is north of that divid¬ 
ing line; for every degree is about 69 miles. San 
Francisco, for example, is close to the 38th parallel; 
Chicago is close to the 42d; and St. Paul is on the 
45th (Figs. 125 and 160). Knowing this, it is easy to 
see that Chicago is 4°, or about 276 miles, farther 
north than San Francisco. It is also easy to see 
that St. Paul is 3°, or over 200 miles farther north 
than Chicago. 

Thus, by the help of the parallel lines one 
can find how far any place is north or south 
of the equator. Instead, however, of saying 
that places are so many degrees north or 
south of the equator , we usually say that they 
are in so many degrees north or south latitude. 
San Francisco, for instance, is near 88° north 
latitude (abbreviated N. Lat.'). Both ways 
are correct, but the latter is merely the 
shorter way of saying it. Latitude is noth¬ 
ing more than distance north or south of 
the equator , measured in degrees; and the 
parallel lines are called parallels of latitude. 

Of course there are no marks upon llie earth to show 
where these circles run. They are drawn on maps, 
where they are of great use because they help to 
locate places. 

Small maps and globes cannot well show the en¬ 
tire ninety parallels on each side of the equator. 
That would make too many lines. For this reason, 
only every fifth or tenth parallel is usually put on 
such maps. Examine some maps (such as Figs. 8 
and 125), to see which ones are given. Near what 
parallel do you live ? 

As in the city, some means must also be 

„ „ found for locating places east 

2. How places , . • . ■ i . 

can be located and west; for two points might 

in an east and p e j n io° north latitude and 
west direction several thousand miles 

apart. Show that this is so. 


Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, 
as before ; but this time they extend around 
the earth from pole to pole (Fig. 288). 
These lines, extending through both poles, 
are called meridians. 

In a city it makes little difference what 
north and south street is chosen from which 
to number the others. It is necessary only 
that a certain one be agreed upon. The 
same is true of these meridians. No one is 
especially important, as the equator is, and 
any one of them might be chosen from which 
to start. Indeed, different nations have 



Fig. 288.—The earth, cut in halves along the Greenwich 
meridian, showing some of the meridians. The me¬ 
ridian 20° is usually considered the dividing line be¬ 
tween the eastern and western hemispheres. 

selected different circles as the one from 
which to begin numbering. In France 
the meridian extending through Paris is 
chosen ; in England that through Green¬ 
wich, near London ; and in America the 
one passing through Washington is some¬ 
times used. 

It is, however, important that all people agree on 
some one meridian to start from, so that all maps 
may be made alike. On that account, many coun¬ 
tries begin their numbering with the meridian which 
passes through Greenwich. The maps in this book 
follow that plan. 

It is necessary in locating places on the earth to 
study the movements of the sun and the stars; and 
this is done in a building, called an observatory, in 
which there are telescopes and other instruments. 
Since there is such an observatory at Greenwich, 
this seemed to the English people to be a fitting 
place from which to begin numbering the meridians 














224 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


Commencing with the meridian of Green¬ 
wich, we measure off degrees both east and 
west of it. On maps and globes these dis¬ 
tances are represented by circles extending 
completely around the earth, through both 
poles. Thus there is a meridian 1° west, 
another 2°, a third 8°, etc. Going eastward, 
the meridians are numbered 1°, 2°, 3°, etc., 
in the same way. Any place on the 3d 
meridian west of Greenwich is 3° west of 
the principal meridian ; if on the 60th me¬ 
ridian, it is 60° west. 

Again, however, instead of saying that 
a place is so many degrees east or west of 



Fig. 289. — A view looking down on the north pole, to 
show how the meridians come to a point at the north 
pole. Notice that if the 0° meridian were continued, it 
would unite with the meridian 180°. 


the principal meridian , we say it is in so 
many degrees east or west longitude. This 
is merely the shorter way of saying it. 
The place on the third meridian, just men¬ 
tioned, is, therefore, in 3° west longitude, 
and the other place is in 60° west longi¬ 
tude. Longitude is nothing more than dis¬ 
tance east or west of the principal meridian , 
measured in degrees - 1 The circles that form 

1 The ancients thought that the world extended 
farther in an east and west direction than in a north 
and south direction. Therefore they called the east 
and west, or long direction, longitude; the north and 
south direction, latitude. 


the meridians are also known as circles of 
longitude. 

Any place on the 20th meridian east of Greenwich 
is in 20° east longitude ( E . Long .). New York is 
in 74° W. Long., while San Francisco is in about 
123° W. Long. Which meridian passes near Chi¬ 
cago ? Denver ? 

The distance around the earth from north to 
south, through both poles, is four times 90°, or 360° 
in all. The equator is likewise divided into 3G0 
parts, or degrees. There are therefore 360 meridi¬ 
ans, if they are drawn one degree apart. They 
are numbered up to 180° in both directions (Fig. 
289). Thus, 180° E. Long, is the same as 
180° W. Long. 

The meridians are not parallel, like the circles of 
latitude. They are farthest apart at the equator, 
where the width of a degree of longitude is about 
69 miles. But all the meridians come together at 
the poles, as you can see on a globe or on Figure 
289. Therefore the width of a degree of longitude 
becomes smaller toward the poles. 

On maps showing only a small part of 
the earth, the circles of latitude and longi¬ 
tude are too far apart to be of Why an( j j 10w 
much use. It is therefore degrees are 
necessary to have still other divided into 
circles. For this purpose the smaller parts 
degrees are divided into parts, called min¬ 
utes. There are sixty minutes in a degree, 
as there are sixty minutes in an hour. The 
minutes themselves are also divided into 
sixty parts, called seconds. 

The sign for a degree is °; for a minute for a 
second ". Thus, 60 degrees, 40 minutes, and 20 
seconds north latitude is marked 60° 40' 20" N. Lat. 
Examine some map of a small section of country to 
find these signs. 

Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, 
it may, by the aid of a map, be as easily located 
as a house in a great city. For instance, Denver 
is about 40° N. Lat., and 105° W. Long. It is there¬ 
fore far to the north and west of New Orleans, which 
is about 30° N. Lat., and 90° W. Long. 

Find the latitude and longitude of some of the 
large cities on the map (Fig. 40). Notice ?ilso that 
only every fifth meridian is marked on this map. 
Compare this with the map of New England 
(Fig. 46). Since the latter map represents a smal¬ 
ler section, more meridians can be drawn upon it. 
Now look at the map of the Holy Land (Fig. 467), 
which represents a still smaller section. There both 
degrees and minutes are shown. 












LATITUDE , LONGITUDE , ^!A r Z» STANDARD TIME 


225 


2. Standard Time 


If you were to travel from New York to 
San Francisco, you would find on arriving 
The differences there that your watch was 
in time be- three hours too fast. The 

tween places reason j s that the rotation of 
the earth is from west to east. This causes 
the sun's rays to fall upon the Atlantic 


coast more than three hours earlier than 
upon the Pacific coast. Hence, when it is 
noon in New York, it is only about nine 
o'clock in the morning at San Francisco. 
The time steadily changes in going either 
east or west, so that no two places on an 
east-west line have exactly the same time 
by the sun. 

Formerly every city used its own sun 
The trouble time, or local time. This was 
caused by such a source of great trouble to 
differences travelers • for their watches 
were always wrong when they arrived at 
new places. When railroads were built, 
and people began to travel more, and to go 
longer distances, the many different kinds 
of local time became even a greater incon¬ 
venience. 

In order to avoid this trouble, our conti¬ 
nent has been divided into belts, in each of 
How this which the railways, and most 
trouble is now of the towns, have agreed to 
largely use the same time. Since this 

avoided time is the standard for all , 

these belts are called the Standard Time 
Belts. The one in the extreme East, in¬ 
cluding eastern Canada, is called the Colo¬ 
nial Belt; the belt next west of this, which 
includes New England, New York, and 
some of the other Eastern States, is called 
the Eastern Time Belt. What are the 
others called (Fig. 290) ? 


In traveling across the country from New York 
City to San Francisco, one starts with his watch set 
at the standard time for the Eastern Time Belt. 
After a while he comes to a place where the time is 
changed one full hour; then he sets his watch hack 
au hour in order to have the Central Time. Going 
still farther west to the Mountain Belt, the watch is 
again set back one full hour. What is done when 


the Pacific Belt is reached ? By this arrangement, 
the same time is used over a very broad belt, and 
only a few changes of the watch have to be made. 
State how a watch would have to be changed when 
one goes eastward from San Francisco to New York. 

Our study of longitude helps us to under¬ 
stand what determines the places for chang¬ 
ing this time. The earth How the time 
makes one complete rotation for each time 
every 24 hours, so that the sun belt is fixed 
passes over 360 degrees in the course of the 
day of 24 hours. Dividing 360 by 24 gives 



STANDARD TIME IN THE UNITED STATES (1919) 

Fig. 290.— To show the Standard Time Belts of the United 
States. 


15 ; that is, the number of meridians, one 
degree apart, that the sun passes over in a 
single hour. Therefore, when it is noon in 
a place on the 75th meridian, as at Phila¬ 
delphia (Fig. 290), it is eleven o’clock just 
15° west of this, or on the 90th meridian. 
When it is noon at one point on a merid¬ 
ian, it is noon all along that meridian. 

This explains what has determined the 
boundar} 7 lines of the time belts. The time 
selected for the Eastern Belt is that of the 
75th meridian , for the Central Belt, that 
of the 90th meridian, which is just one hour 
later. What meridian is selected for the 
Mountain Belt (Fig. 290) ? For the Pacific 
Belt? 

Each of these meridians runs through the 
middle of the belt whose time it fixes. 
Thus, the eastern boundary of the Central 
Time Belt is halfway between the 75th and 
90th meridians, that is, 82|° W. Long. ; 












226 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


Why the 
boundaries for 
these time 
belts are not 
regular 


and the western boundary is halfway be¬ 
tween the 90th and 105th meridians, or 
971° W. Long. 

Asa matter of fact, the railways do not change 
their time exactly on these meridians. It often 
happens that the meridians chosen 
for boundaries pass through very 
unimportant points, or even cross 
the railways far out in the open 
country. Instead of following the 
exact boundaries, therefore, the rail¬ 
ways often select well-known cities as the places 
where the changes shall be made. For instance, 
Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Atlanta are the principal 
cities that lie on the boundary between the Eastern 
and the Central time belts. Railway time-tables 
show a change of one hour at these points; and pas¬ 
sengers going east or west change their watches one 
hour here (Fig. 290). Name cities located on 
other boundaries. Thus it happens that the bound¬ 
aries where the railways actually change their time 
are somewhat irregular. But that makes little dif¬ 
ference, so long as there is a general agreement as 
to the location of the boundaries. 

It is true that the Standard Time is incorrect for 
most places. It is the sun that really fixes our time, 
and at most points Standard Time cannot agree 
with the sun, or local time. Yet Standard Time 
relieves us of much trouble, and that is the chief 
reason for its use. 

In order that our system may agree with that 
of other parts of the world, the time of the Green¬ 
wich meridian is taken as a basis. Thus the 
whole world may be divided into Standard Time 
belts, with a change of an hour at every fifteenth 
meridian. 


1. Explain the need of some way of locating places 
exactly. 2. How may houses be located in large 
„ . cities? 3. How can all places be 

l\ PV1PW A 

.. located in a north and south direc- 

quesuons tiou on the earth ? 4 How in an 

east and west direction ? 5. Locate several places 
accurately by using a map. 6. Define latitude; 
longitude. 7. What is meant by a degree ? 8. How 
many degrees of longitude are there on the equa¬ 
tor? 9. How many miles is each of these degrees? 
10. Why are meridians not parallel? 11. How 
many degr6es of latitude are there from pole to pole ? 
12. How are degrees subdivided ? Why? 13. Ex¬ 
plain about the differences in time by the sun, in 
different places. 14. How have these differences 
caused much trouble ? 15. How is the difficulty 
now largely avoided? 16. Explain how the time 
for each time belt is determined. 17. Name the 
time belts in North America, and locate each. 
18. Why are the boundaries not regular? 


1. Find how the streets of Washington have been 
numbered and lettered. 2. What is the latitude and 
longitude of Boston? Of Washing- s U gg es ti ons 
ton? Of Chicago? Of your home? 

3. Find some cities that are on or near the 42d 
parallel of latitude. 4. What place is in 25° N. 
Lat. and 81° W. Long. ? What place is near 40° N. 
Lat. and 75° W. Long. ? 5. Find places that have 
nearly the same latitude as your home. 6. Show on 
a globe, or map, where a ship would be in the 
Atlantic when in zero latitude and zero longitude. 
7. Examine a globe to see what meridian is a con¬ 
tinuation of zero longitude on the other side of the 
earth. 8. Find the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer ; 
of the Tropic of Capricorn ; of the Arctic Circle; 
of the Antarctic Circle. 9. Where and how much 
would you change your watch in traveling from San 
Francisco to Chicago? 10. Examine some railway 
time-tables to see how they indicate the changes in 
time. 11. What is the difference, where you live, 
between Standard Time and solar or sun time ? 
12. Find out whether the true Standard Time is 
telegraphed to your city each day, and if so from 
what place. 


III. Winds and Rain 
i. Winds 

In our study of North America, we have 
learned that the winds of different sections 
came from different directions. The problem 
For example, in the West before us 
Indies, Central America, and southern 
Mexico, the winds usually blow from the 
northeast; but on the western side of the 
continent, all the way from San Francisco 
to Alaska, the wind blows quite regularly 
from a westerly quarter. In the eastern 
part of the United States, on the other 
hand, the winds arc irregular in direction, 
although they blow more often from the 
west than from any other quarter. We 
will now study the causes for these dif¬ 
ferences, and also learn what the principal 
winds on the earth are. 

It will help us to understand this subject 
if we first find what currents of air a hot 
stove causes in a room (Fig. The currents 
291). The first thing that of air caused 
happens when a fire is kin- by a hot stove 
died is that the air near the stove is 



WINDS AND RAIN 


007 


warmed. This causes it to expand and 
b come lighter. Then the cooler, heavier 
air in other parts of the room settles down 
and flows in toward the stove, forcing up¬ 
ward the warm, light air 
near the stove. This 
warm, rising air grows 
cooler as it comes in con¬ 
tact with the cool ceiling 
and the walls of the room. 

This makes it dense 
and heavy again ; it 
then settles toward the 
floor at some distance 
from the stove, and once 
more moves toward the 
stove. 

In other words, the cur¬ 
rents of air keep circling 
around in the room, ris¬ 
ing when warmed, and 
settling when cooled. In 
such a room, you can 
easily observe how warm 
the air is near the ceiling, 
where it has risen above 
the stove ; and how much 
cooler it is near the floor at some distance 
from the stove. 

The greater winds of the earth may be 
compared to this movement of air in a room. 


XEM >•> X 


lighter, just as the air does about the hot 
stove. The cooler, heavier air to the north 
and south of the torrid zone then flows 
in and pushes the light air up and away. 



Fig. 291. —The arrows show the currents of air in a room that are caused 

by a hot stove. 


NORTH POLE- 



Fig. 292.— Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement 
of the greater winds of the earth. 


Here, however, the broad torrid zone, which 
is warmed by the sun’s rays, 
takes the place of the stove. 
In the torrid zone the hot 
sun heats the air, thus caus¬ 
ing it to expand and become 


How the prin¬ 
cipal winds of 
the earth 
resemble these 
currents 


Such a flowing of the air is what we call 
wind. 

This vast movement of the air is illus¬ 
trated in Figure 292. The letter E stands 
for the equator. The arrows represent the 
cooler air, north and south of the equator, 
as crowding in toward that section, then 
rising, and returning once more to the north 
and south. 

The air that flows toward the torrid zone 
causes very regular winds that are called 
trade winds. They start in both N ames of the 
the north and south temperate principal 
zones, hundreds of miles away, winds on the 
and blow toward the equator earth 
day after day and month after month. 

Since the heated air must escape some¬ 
where, it rises far above the surface of the 
earth, and then flows back in the same 
direction from which it came. This forms 
the return trade , or anti-trade winds (Fig. 




































































































































































































































































































































































































GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


228 


292). The atmosphere extends many miles 
above the earth, so that there is plenty of 
room for two winds, one above the other, 
blowing in opposite directions. 

In Cuba, the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere, where 
the trade winds are felt at the surface, one notices 
that the clouds, far up in the sky,, move steadily in 
the opposite direction. They are being borne along 
in the anti-trades. When volcanoes in Central 
America have been in eruption, the ashes that were 
hurled out from them have been carried hundreds 
of miles in the opposite direction from that of the 
trade winds at the surface. 

Being cooled on account of its great 
height, the air of the anti-trades slowly 


outward and down , and once more (4) in - 
ward toward the heated part. Make a 
drawing to illustrate these four directions 
of movement of the air. 


There are differences, however, and one of them 
is especially important. In the room, the currents 
move directly toward the stove; then, 
after rising, moves directly away 
from it. If the earth stood still, the 
trade winds also would blow directly 
toward the equator from the north 
and south ; and the anti-trades would 
blow directly away from it. 

As you know, however, the earth rotates from 
west to east at a rapid rate. This rotation causes 
the trade winds to be turned from their straight 


Effects of 
earth’s rota¬ 
tion on direc¬ 
tion of these 
winds 



/ HORSE LATITUDES 


TRADE 


WINTER^ 

,MONSO\ 


BELT OF 


CALMS 


SOUTHEAST 


\ WINDS 


-Mlatitu-d-Ts 


Fig. 293. — A diagram to show the principal wind belts of the earth. 




ItiO 


l-'U 










f ri 

horse\la[titudes , 


/Sjs 


' WINDS l y 

'V'aI 

BELT OF CALMS '"" 


' NORTHEAST 
BELT OF CALMS 


EQUATOR 








>1V I 


W ESTER L 


WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N.Y. 


160 " 


120 


40" 


settles, some of it coming to the surface at 
about a third of the distance to the poles. 
There it spreads out, a part continuing on 
toward the poles, a part returning to the 
equator as the trade winds. Point out the 
arrows that show these movements in 
Figure 292. 

Thus, as you see, these currents in the 
atmosphere closely resemble those in the 
room. In both cases air moves (1) in to¬ 
ward a heated place, (2) then up, then (3) 


course toward the equator. Those in the northern 
hemisphere are turned to the right , so that they blow 
from the northeast instead of from the north. Those 
in the southern hemisphere are turned toward the 
left, and therefore they blow from the southeast in¬ 
stead of from the south. 

The anti-trades are also turned toward the right 
in the northern hemisphere, where they blow from 
the southwest, and toward the left in the southern 
hemisphere, where they blow from the northwest. 
The exact reason for this effect of rotation is far 
too complex to state here; so that only the facts 
are given without explanation. 







































































WINDS AND RAIN 


229 


It is now easy to see why the West 
Indies, Central America, and southern 
The great Mexico receive such regular 
wind belts winds from the northeast. 
They lie in the belt of the northeast trade 
winds just described. 

The prevailing west winds of the Pacific 
coast are a part of the air of the anti-trades 
that has settled to the surface and ismovinsr 
on toward the east. If you watch the higher 
clouds, you will find, in most parts of the 
United States, that they are moving toward 
the east. Even at the surface, the winds 
blow from the west more often than from 
any other quarter. In the northern part 
of the United States and in Canada, the 
winds blow so often from the west, north¬ 
west, or southwest, that this whole region 
is known as the region of the prevailing 
westerlies. 

Regular winds, such as are found in 
North America, are likewise found in most 
other parts of the world. In other words, 
there are several belts of regular winds 
extending around the earth. Figure 293 
shows these clearly. Point out the belt of 
trade winds north of the equator. Point 
out the prevailing westerlies. Point out the 
two similar wind belts on the south side of 
the equator. 

Notice how much more distinctly these 
belts are shown over the ocean than over 
Why the the land. There are several 
winds are reasons why winds blow much 

most regular more steadily over the ocean 
over the ocean than oyer the lantL The prin _ 

cipal one is that the temperature of the 
water does not change so quickly as that 
of the land. On the land one place may 
become much warmer than another not far 
away, and then winds blow toward the 
warmer section. This often changes the 
direction of the regular winds on the land. 

That the winds blow very steadily over the ocean 
is most clearly shown (Fig. 293) in the southern 
hemisphere, where there is little land. There, in 
the belt of prevailing westerlies, the wind is almost 
all the time from the west. Indeed, it is said that 


vessels, choosing a course south of Africa and South 
America, can sail around the world with fair winds 
almost all the way, if they go toward the east; but 
if they sail in the opposite direction, the winds are 
against them. 

Besides the four belts of winds just men¬ 
tioned, there are three other belts in which 
it is either calm, or else there 
are only light, variable winds. cal ^ S ; a nd 
The most important of these the belts of 
is called the belt of calm* u S ht and vari * 
(Figs. 292 and 293), which is able winds 
several hundred miles in width. This 
belt is situated where the trade winds 
from the northeast and those from the 
southeast die out. It is in this belt that 
the heated air in the torrid zone is risiner. 
Since it is moving upward , no wind can be 
felt, and this is, therefore, a belt of pre¬ 
vailing calms. What winds there are, are 
usually light and changeable. 

Northern Mexico and southern Califor¬ 
nia are situated in another belt of light 
winds with frequent calms. This is the 



Fig. 291.—Diagram to show the position of the trade 
winds belts and the belt of calms in summer. 


belt where the air of the anti-trades is 
settling toward the earth ; and settling air, 
like rising air, does not cause winds. This 
region is known as the horse latitudes. 1 
Point out the belt on Figures 292 and 293. 

1 Called horse latitudes because sailing vessels, carry¬ 
ing horses from New England to the West Indies in 
the early days, were so delayed by the calms that the 
horses had to be thrown overboard when the drinking 
water gave out. 





















230 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


Show the corresponding belt on the south 
side of the equator. 


The belt of most intense heat is not always in 
exactly the same part of the earth. In June, when 
the sun is vertical at the Tropic of 
Cancer, the belt of greatest heat lies 
north of the equator; and in Decem¬ 
ber, when the sun’s rays are vertical 
at the Tropic of Capricorn, it lies 
As the belt of greatest heat thus 


Effects of 
earth’s revolu¬ 
tion on all 
these belts 


farther south. 



Fig. 295. — Diagram to show the position of the belt of 
calms and the trade winds in winter. 


shifts with the season, the belt of calms moves also. 
That causes the trade wind belts to move, likewise. 
Indeed, all the belts slowly shift northward in sum¬ 
mer and southward in winter (Figs. 294 and 295). 

2. Rain 

Knowing the wind belts that encircle the 
earth, we have a key to the principal rain 
Relation of belts ; for the winds are the 
winds to rain water carriers of the earth. 
Water that is evaporated from the surface 
of the oceans and of the lands, is borne 
along in the air in the form of vapor. It 
descends to the earth as rain or snow, fall¬ 
ing in great abundance in some places, and 
scarcely at all in others. 

To understand the cause for the change 
of vapor to rain or snow, it is necessary, 
Principal first of all, to know that there 

cause of rain can be more water vapor in 
warm than in cool air. Quite warm air 
can hold much more vapor than cold air. 

For this reason, whenever air is cooled 
sufficiently, some of the water vapor which 


it bears is condensed. For example, vapor 
condenses on a cold glass because the air 
next to it is cooled; and dew forms on 
grass when the air near the ground grows 
cool in the evening. In a like manner, the 
vapor in our breath is condensed, thus form¬ 
ing a little cloud, when we breathe into the 
cold air of a winter day. Rain is also caused 
by the cooling of air which contains vapor. 

One important cause for the cooling of 
air is that it expands on rising above the 
surface. Perhaps you have noticed how 
cool the air feels as it rushes out from a 
bicycle tire when you open the valve. 
The coolness is due to the expansion of the 
air as it comes out. In a similar way, 
when air rises above the surface of the 
earth, it expands, because there is less air 
above to press upon it. Then it grows 
cool ; and while doing so, some of its 
vapor may be condensed to form clouds 
and raindrops. 

This is the chief reason why winds from 
the ocean cause rainfall on mountain slopes 
and plateaus. The air is forced to rise in 
order to pass over the highlands, and that 
allows it to expand and grow cool. For 
the same reason, air that rises in the warm 
parts of the earth, like the belt of calms, 
also gives up vapor to form rain. Briefly, 
— token air rises , it expands and cools ; and 
then rain usually follows. 

On the other hand, air that is settling 
grows warmer; and, instead of giving up 
its vapor, it becomes dry and One reason for 
clear. This may again be il- dry weather 
lustrated by the bicycle ; for when air is 
pumped into the tire, the pump becomes 
warm as the air is made denser, or is com¬ 
pressed, by pumping. In a like manner, 
air that is descending toward the earth’s 
surface is compressed and warmed because 
of the great pressure of the atmosphere 
above. Since there can be more vapor in 
warm than in cool air, such settling air 
currents become steadily drier. They cause 
clouds to disappear, and water to be evap¬ 
orated from the ground. This is the rea- 














WINDS AND RA IN 


231 


The regular 
rain belts 

1. In North 
America 


son why the horse latitudes are arid belts; 
for, as you remember, the air in these belts 
is settling from above. Brielly ,—when air 
descends , it becomes denser and e/rows warmer; 
then the sky is clear and the weather dry. 

These facts have been well illustrated in 
the rains of North America. The northeast 
trade winds, having gathered a 
large amount of vapor from the 
ocean, deposit it on the wind¬ 
ward slopes of the West Indies, 
southern Mexico, and Central America 
(Fig. 296). The soutliwestern slopes of the 
West Indies, however, receive a much 
smaller quantity of rain; and the western 
coast of Mexico is quite arid. 

Farther north the prevailing westerlies, 
having traveled a long distance over the 
Pacific Ocean, likewise cause heavy rains 
along the western coast of North America 
(Fig. 297). But these winds also lose 
much of their moisture in passing over the 
Western highlands; and the land farther 


Asia (Fig. 299), and to the islands near by, 
such as the Philippine Islands. 



WIUIAM& £NG. CO., N.Y, 


therefore, re- 
very little 


east, 
ceives 
rain. 

Northern Mexico 
and the southwest¬ 
ern part of the 
United States, lying 
within the horse 
latitudes, where the 
air is descending, 
also receive • very 
little rain and are 
arid (Fig. 297). 

This is true even 
at the seashore 
in southern Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Other regions ly¬ 
ing within the regu¬ 
lar wind belts show 
the same conditions 
2 in other of rainfall. For example, note 
regions north what heavy rains the northeast 
of the equator trade winds bring to northern 

South America (Fig. 296), to southeastern 



Fig. 297. —The heavy rainfall where the prevailing westerlies 
blow over the rising coast. What is the condition farther 
east ? What is the case where the trade winds blow ? Why ? 


Fig. 296.—The rainy east coasts and arid west coasts cf 
the trade wind belts. Also the rainy belt of calms of 
South America. 


In western Asia and northern Africa, on 
the other hand, these winds deposit little 

moisture, as is 
clearly shown by 
Figures 298 and 
299. One cause for 
this is that, before 
reaching these re¬ 
gions, the trade 
winds have been 
blowing a long dis¬ 
tance over the land, 
and not over the 
oceans. For this 
reason they have 
little vapor to de¬ 
posit. Another very 
important reason is 
that the air is mov¬ 
ing from a cooler to 
a warmer region, 
and is steadily be¬ 
coming warmer. 
Instead of being forced, therefore, to give 
up its moisture, it takes more vapor. Thus 
in this region the trade winds take up 


water wherever they find it; and instead 










































































































232 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


of causing rain they are really drying winds. 
This accounts for the Sahara and some other 
deserts. 

The prevailing westerlies reach Europe, as 
well as North America, and cause abundant 



1 1lLIAMS ENG. CO., N.Y. 


Fig. 298. — To illustrate the desert regions in the trade wind 
and horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the 
heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the similar 
belts on Figures 296, 299, and 300. 

rainfall on the western coast. Since there 
are no lofty mountains on the west coast of 
Europe, however, there is no arid and desert 
land in this part of the west wind belt. On 
the other hand, the three peninsulas of 
southern Europe, like southern California, 
lie partly within the horse latitudes; and 
for this reason there is little rain, especially 
in their southern portion. 

South of the equator the southeast trade 

winds cause heavy rains on the east coast 

3. in regions of South America (Fig. 296) ; 

south of the then, crossing the continent, 

equator ,i • 

they give up more vapor in 

ascending the eastern slopes of the Andes. 
The air is so drained of its vapor here, 
that when it descends on the western side 
of the mountains, there is little left. For 
this reason the southern parts of Peru and 
northern Chile, even within sight of the 
Pacific Ocean, form one of the most desert 
regions of the earth. Southern Chile, on the 
other hand, being in the belt of the prevail¬ 
ing westerlies, has plenty of rain (Fig. 299). 

Most of Australia is in the southeast 
trade wind belt. Therefore, rainfall is 


ample on the eastern coast; but since the 
highlands on this continent are close to 
the east coast, nearly all the remainder of 
the country suffers for want of rain (Fig. 
300). The southwestern tip of Australia, 
the island of Tasmania, and the southern 
island of New Zealand, like southern Chile, 
are reached by the prevailing westerlies ; 
and for that reason they receive abundant 
rain. 

The belt of calms is the most rainy of all 
the belts (Figs. 296, 298, and 300), because 
its hot, moisture-laden air is 4 . in the belt 
rising and cooling. After a of calms 
clear night in that region, the sun usually 
rises in a cloudless sky. As the morning 
advances, and the heat grows more intense, 
the damp air rises more rapidly ; then small 
clouds appear, and they grow steadily until 
rain falls from them. Showers occur al¬ 
most every day, increasing in the afternoon. 
When the sun sets, and less air rises, the 
clouds melt away, the stars appear, and the 
night is as clear as before. Our hot, muggy 
summer days, with heavy thunder showers 



coast of Australia where the trade winds blow. Notice 
also the arid interior and west coast. What is the con¬ 
dition in the belt of calms? What resemblance do you 
see to Figure 297 ? 

in the afternoon and evening, illustrate the 
weather that is repeated, day after day, in 
this belt of calms. 

^ on have already learned (p. 230) that the wind 
belts shift northward in summer and southward in 





























































































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234 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




winter. Many places in the torrid zone are within 
l he belt of calms during the summer months, and 
are swept by the trade winds in the 

of these Sn tmg winter mout J ls - This , is of s l; ec | al 
bdt a importance, because the ram belts 

shift with the wind belts. That 

divides the year in such places into two seasons: 


Fig. 301.— Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December 

to February. 

(1) a wet season, when the region is in the belt of 
calms; and (2) a dry season, when the trade winds 
blow. 

The part of northern Africa that lies just south 
of the Sahara Desert affords an instance of this 
(Figs. 301 and 302). Find another instance in 
northern South America. Note what an enormous 
area in each of these continents is 
wet during one part of the year and 
dry during the other. 

Thus far only the regular 
wind and rain belts have 
been considered. 

From what has 
been said, one 
might expect 
that the west 
winds, so dry 
after passing over the high¬ 
lands of western United States, 


south wind on one day ; the next day a cool, 
dry wind may blow from the northwest; 
after two or three days this may give place 
to a cloudy sky and rain, brought on by south 
or east winds ; and then fair, cool weather, 
with northwest winds, may again set in. 

The reason for such change¬ 
able weather here is that this 
region is crossed (2) Thereason 
by great storms, for such 
m o v i n g fro m weat/ier 
west to east. When such 
storms begin in the North¬ 
west, there is a large area there 
with lighter air than that over 
the surrounding region. Such 
an area is called a low pressure 
area (Fig. 304). The heavier 
air, from the surrounding 
country, flows toward this low 
pressure area. This causes winds which 
on the south side blow from the south, on 
the east side from the east, and so forth 
(Fig. 304). 

The air that flows in from all sides rises 
near the center of the low pressure area. 


Regions of 
irregular rains 
1. In eastern 
United States 
and Canada 
(1) Kind of 
weather here 


would continue eastward and 
cause our Central and Eastern States to be 
arid. As a matter of fact, we know that 
abundant rain falls in this section, as shown 
by Figure 303. We know, too, that there are 
no very regular winds over this entire area ; 
on the contrary, both winds and temperature 
are quite changeable. In any particular 
locality it may be warm and pleasant, with a 


Fig. 302. — Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to 
August. Compare with Figure 301 to see bow the belts of heavy rain 
have migrated as the wind belts have shifted with the change of season. 


As it rises, the vapor condenses, forming 
clouds and rain, as in the belt of calms. 
Such an area of low pressure, with its clouds 
and rain, is known as a cyclonic storm area 
(Fig. 305). 

Instead of remaining in one place, the 
cyclonic storms travel steadily onward, 
usually beginning in the northwest, and 




























































































236 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


alivays passing eastward (Fig. 306). 4 he 

paths followed by the storm centers gener- 
... ally pass over the Great Lakes, 

TtieTit of the cy - and down tliG I^awicncG 

clonic storms, Valley to the ocean. They 
ana their eXmt moye eastward because the 

prevailing westerlies carry 
them along; indeed, these 
great cyclonic storms appear 
to be whirls, or eddies, in 
the prevailing westerlies, 
somewhat like the eddies in 
the current of a stream. 

These storms bring most 
of the rain that falls in the 
United States and Canada, 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

The area of country upon 
which the rain may be falling 
from the clouds of one of the 
cyclonic storms is sometimes 
very great. Indeed, places 
fully a thousand miles apart 
sometimes receive rain at 
the same time, from the same 
storm (Fig. 305). As the 
storm moves eastward, the weather begins 
to clear on the western side (Figs. 304 
and 306). 

The vapor that causes the rain in these storms is 
brought from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic 


places, tornadoes , often called cyclones , in which the 
winds blow so fiercely that houses are torn to pieces 
(Fig. 307). 

After a low pressure area has passed eastward, 
and the storm is over, the wind generally blows from 
the west. This causes cool, dry weather in summer, 
and cold snaps in winter. The latter are often so 


severe that they are called cold waves; and these, 
sweeping over the East, and even in the South, often 
do great damage to fruit trees and delicate plants. 

While the cyclonic storms are quite ir¬ 
regular, they are almost certain to come 



Fig. 304. — A weather map of the United States on a winter’s day. The lines 
are lines of equal air pressure, — the lower the figure, the lighter the air 
(29.5 representing lighter air than 29.7). The pressure is determined by an 
instrument called the barometer. 



Fig. 305. — A diagram section through a cyclonic storm area. The arrows show the direction of the winds; the shaded 
area represents cloud and rain. Such a storm covers a very large area, often from the Mississippi River (M) to 
the Appalachian Mountains (A). 


Ocean, being carried by the winds for hundreds of 
miles, even into Canada. 

Not only are rains caused by these storms, but 
hot spells, and other changes as well. Warm winds, 
• rVff blowing from the south toward the 
\ low pressure areas, are the cause of 

weather the winter thaws and the summer 

hot spells, which are common in the 
Eastern and Central States. It is during the hot 
spells that thunder storms come; also, in some 


whenever a wide area of low air pressure 
appears in the West. Tlius, by watching 
the pressure of the air, as (5) Possibility 
shown by instruments called, of predicting 
barometers, it is possible to * hese storms 
predict such a storm ; and since they 
always move toward the east, it is possible, 
by further study of the barometer, and of 























WINDS AND RAIN 


237 


the winds, to predict their course some¬ 
what accurately, and thus warn people of 
their coming. 

This work is so important that the United 
States government employs a large force of 


men, stationed in different parts of the 

country, to observe the pres- 
(6) How the pre- r • t , • c ^ 

dictions are sure °* air ’ direction ot wind, 

made, and how etc. The observations are 

people are made at the same time at all 
warned 

stations, and telegraphed to 
the central office at Washington. A 
special branch of the government, called 
the Weather Bureau , has been established to 
have charge of this work. 

The storm predictions are telegraphed from Wash¬ 
ington to all parts of the country, so that one knows 
w hat kind of weather to expect a full day before it 
comes. These predictions are usually printed in the 
newspapers, as you no doubt know. 

Maps, called weather maps, are also sent out in 
great numbers. Figures 304 and 306 are made from 
such maps. Figure 304 shows a cyclonic storm in 
the Northwest, the arrows indicating how the winds 
blow, from all sides, toward the center of low pres¬ 
sure. Farther east is a region of high pressure. In 
Figure 306, the high and low pressure areas are 
again represented; but, since it is a day later, they 
have both moved eastward; and the following day 
they would be still farther east. 

From these maps you can see how the direction 


of the wind, for any one locality, changes as the low 
pressure areas pass over the country. By them, 
also, any person may see what the weather promises 
to be in all parts of the country, and may follow 
the changes from day to day. 

By the predictions of the Weather Bureau, farm¬ 
ers and gardeners are warned 
against damaging- 

frosts, and sailors ^ , Value °f 
, such wannnr/s 

against severe 

storms. Hundreds of thousands 
of dollars are saved in this manner 
every year. Especially valuable 
service has been rendered by the 
Weather Bureau in predicting 
the fierce hurricanes that start in 
the West Indies and sometimes 
do great damage there, as well as 
on our own coast (Fig. 308). 
These resemble the cyclonic 
storms, but are much more de¬ 
structive. They often pass along 
our eastern coast, and then east¬ 
ward out into the Atlantic. 

Since the storms and high pres¬ 
sure areas have so great an influ¬ 
ence on our weather, you will find 
it of interest to study the weather 
yourself. Watch the changes in 
wind, temperature, clouds, and rain; and if theie 
is a barometer at hand, observe how it changes as 
the high and low pressure areas come and go. You 
might also examine the weather map and watch 
the weather that follows, to see how accurately the 
map predicts the weather. 



Fig. 307. — A house, one side of which was blown off 
during the passage of a cyclone. 


Since Europe, like the United States, is 
mainly in the belt of prevailing westerlies. 



Fig. 306. — Weather map for the day following that of Figure 304. Study this 
carefully, and tell how it differs from Figure 304. 
















238 


general geography 




it also is visited by cyclonic storms. Many 
of the storms that cross our country pass 

2 Regions of 0Yer tlie ocean ’ anc ^ travel fai¬ 
n-regular rains into Eurasia before they die 
m Europe out. There, as here, the area 

upon which rain may be 
falling during one of 
these storms is some¬ 
times very great. As 
in our country, the 
weather is made change¬ 
able by these storms ; 
it may be warm and 
pleasant one day, stormy 
the next, then clear and 
cool, or cold. 


shore soon becomes warm on a hot summer morn¬ 
ing, while the water near by remains cool. The 

air over the warm land is heated, as 

. i i •. -l i 1 • bea ana iaK6 

over a stove, so that it expands and breezes 

grows light; but that over the 
water remains cool, like the sea itself. 


Similar cyclonic storms 
develop in the prevailing 
westerly belt 

3 S uch regions of tfae gQuth _ 

ern he m i- 
sphere; and 
there, too, they cause changes 
in temperature, wind, and 

rain. For this reason the weather of southern 
South America, Australia, and the islands of the 
Southern Ocean resembles our own. 


in the southern 
hemisphere 


Fig. 309. — The winds and rainfall during the summer 
monsoon of India. 

There are other causes besides cyclonic storms for 
Rains caused interference with the regular winds 
by other winds °^he earth, and therefore with the 
rainfall. One of these is the dif¬ 
ference in temperature between land and water. 

Land warms and cools much more quickly than 
water. For this reason the land along the sea¬ 


Fig. 308. —A scene in Galveston, showing the vast destruction done by a hurricane 
in 1900, when many of the houses were torn to pieces during the storm. 


This cooler air, being the heavier, then pushes 
in toward the shore; and thus a breeze from 
the sea, or a sen breeze, is created. In summer 
such a breeze is frequently felt at the seashore 
and along the shores of large lakes; and it often 
changes a very hot day into a cool one. Often, also, 
it brings a shower of rain, especially in the w r arm 
lands of the torrid zone. At night the land cools 
more rapidly than the sea; and the cool air from 
the land blows out toward the sea, forming a land 
breeze. Then the weather is clear. 

The sea breezes blow only for short distances. 
But when a large body of land, like a continent, 
becomes warm, air from the cooler 
ocean may blow toward it for him- ^ Themon- 
dreds of miles. In winter, on the 
other hand, when the land becomes cooler than the 
ocean, the cold air over a vast area may move toward 
the sea. Such winds exist in Mexico and our Gulf 
States; but they are far more important in Asia. 

The interior of that vast continent is so far from 
the ocean, that there are naturally great changes in 
temperature from summer to winter. During the 
winter, the heavy air over the cold land settles down 
as drying air, and presses outward beneath the 
warmer air which lies over the ocean. This produces 
dry winds from the land (Fig. 310). In summer, 
on the other hand, the air over the cool water 
crowds in, raises the heated air of the continent, 
and produces ocean winds and rain (Fig. 309). 























OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS 


239 


Winds which thus blow iu opposite directions in 
different seasons, are better developed in India than 
in any other part of the earth; and it was here that 
they received the name, monsoon winds. The name 
monsoon is now given to this class of winds wherever 
they may blow. 

The rainy season comes in India when the summer 
monsoons blow (Fig. 309) ; and the rainfall is es¬ 
pecially heavy where the moisture-laden air ascends 
the steep slope of the Himalayas. Indeed, the region 
north of the Bay of Bengal receives the heaviest 
rainfall of any part of the earth (Fig. 309). Here, 
in the month of July alone, there is three times as 



Delhi 


Calcutta^ 


[audalay 


i Madras 


L - "] Very light rainfall 
Moderate rainfall 
m Heavy rainfall 


Colombo 


Fig. 310. — Map of the winter monsoon winds and rainfall 
of India. Compare with Figure 309, and notice how 
very light the rainfall is in one season, and how heavy 
it is iu the opposite season. 


much rain as falls in the eastern part of the United 
States during the entire year. The winter monsoon, 
on the other hand, is so dry that vegetation withers 
and the soil becomes parched and cracked, as in a 
desert. 

1. Explain the currents of air that are caused by 
a hot stove in a room. 2. Show how the principal 
. winds of the earth resemble these 

Review currents. 3. Name the principal 

Ques ions winds of the earth. 4. What is the 
effect of the earth’s rotation on the direction of these 
winds? 5. Locate the principal wind belts on the 
earth’s surface. 6. Why are the winds most regular 
over the ocean ? 7. Locate the belt of calms ; and 
the two belts of light and variable winds. 8. What 
is the effect of the earth’s revolution on the location 
of these wind belts ? 9. W hat is the relation of 

winds to rain? 10. Explain the principal cause of 
rain. 11. Give one reason for clear, dry weather. 

12. Locate the regular rain belts in North America. 

13. In other regions north of the equator. 14. In 
regions south of the equator. 15. In the belt of 
cairns. 16. Explain about the shifting of these rain 
belts. 17. Describe the more irregular weather in our 
Eastern States and in eastern Canada. 18. Explain 


the reasons for such weather. 19. In what direction do 
the cyclonic storms move, and what is their extent? 

20. How do cyclonic storms affect our weather? 

21. What about the possibility of predicting these 
storms? 22. I low is that work managed ? 23. How 
are the warnings of value ? 24. What about regions 
of irregular rains in Europe? 25. In the southern 
hemisphere ? 26. Explain the causes of sea breezes 
and land breezes. 27. Account for the different 
directions of the wind in southern Asia in summer 
and winter. 28. What effect have the summer mon¬ 
soons of India on rainfall ? The winter monsoons ? 

1. Estimate the number of barrels of water that 
falls on an acre of ground, or upon a city block, in 
one year, where the rainfall is forty „ 
inches. 2. How is a movement of Su Sg estl0ns 
air secured in your schoolroom in order to ventilate 
it ? 3. Make a drawing to show the direction of the 
regular winds of the earth. 4. Watch the higher 
clouds to see in what direction they are moving. 
5. Bead once more the section on “ Air ” in the 
First Book, p. 54. 6. Write an account of the 

changes in weather for five days in succession: 
the wind direction and force; the clouds; rain; 
temperature; and, if possible, the air pressure. 
7. Read the chapter on winds and storms in Tarr’s 
“ New Physical Geography,” pp. 255-274. 


IV. Ocean Movements, and their Ef¬ 
fects ; also Distribution of Temper¬ 
ature 

i. Ocean Movements, and their Effects 

Like the air, the ocean water is in motion. 
Its three principal movements are wind 
waves, tides, and ocean currents. The 
movements of the water, like those of the 
winds, are of the greatest importance to us. 


(1) Wind Waves and Tides 

Waves are formed by winds which blow 
over the surface of the water and ruffle it. 
Sometimes, during storms, the wind waveg 
heavy winds pile up the water 
in waves that are from twenty to forty feet 
high. Even such great waves are rarely 
very dangerous to large vessels in the open 
ocean ; but upon the seashore they do great 
damage to vessels, and even to the coast 
itself. The constant beating of the waves 
is slowly wearing the rocks away and drag- 














240 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


ging the fragments out to sea, thus cutting 
the coast back. 

People living upon the seacoast know 
that the ocean water rises for about six 
Tides hours, and then slowly falls 

l what the for the same period. This 
tides are rising and falling of the water, 

twice each day, forms what is known as 
the tides. 

For a long time men were puzzled to explain this 
movementof the ocean. It was called 
of tides CaUSC the breathing of theearth ; and to this 
day, certain uncivilized races think 
that the tide is caused by some great animal. 


Bay of Fundy, the tide reaches a height 
of forty or fifty feet. 

The height of the tide also varies from day to 
day; for the moon and sun, which combine to form 
it, do not always work together. At new moon, and at 
full moon, — when the earth, moon, andsun are nearly 
in a straight line, — the moon andsun pull together. 
They then make the tidal wave higher than at the 
quarter, when the sun is pulling in one direction and 
the moon in another. The high range of tides at full 
and new moon are called spring tides; those at the 
quarters, neap tides. 

In the open ocean, the tides are of little 
or no consequence. But along the coast, 



Fig. 311. — The ocean waves running on to the beach in great breakers. 


As a result of much careful study, it has been 
learned that the tides are caused by the moon and 
the sun, especially the former. Each of these bodies 
is pulling upon the earth, by the attraction of gravi¬ 
tation, much as a horseshoe magnet pulls upon a 
piece of iron. Since the ocean is a liquid, this “ pull ” 
draws it slightly out of shape. This causes two 
great swells, or waves, many hundreds of miles broad, 
one on each side of the earth. They sweep across 
the oceans, following the moon, and, on reaching the 
coast, cause the rise of water known as the tide. 

The tidal wave is only two or three feet 
high upon islands in the open ocean; but it 
3. Height of the rises a great deal higher in 
tidal wave many bays because the space 
that it occupies becomes narrower near the 
head of the bay. In some places, as in the 


where the water rises and falls against the 
beaches and cliffs, they are of much im¬ 
portance. Where the coast 4 . Effects of 
is irregular, the tide is often tides 
changed to a current , which sometimes 
moves so rapidly that a sailing vessel can¬ 
not make headway against it, but must 
wait until the tide changes. Such a rapid 
current is found in one of the entrances to 
New York harbor, at what is known as 
Hell Gate, where the channel is narrow 
and rocky. 

These tidal currents move in one direction during 
the incoming, or flood, tide, and in the opposite direc¬ 
tion during the outgoing, or ebb , tide. They some¬ 
times drift vessels out of their course and place 











OCEAN MOVEMENTS AN1) THEIR EFFECTS 


241 



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'ALASKA: 


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23 




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WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N.Y. 


them in dangerous positions. Many a ship lias been 
wrecked upon a coast where it was drifted by the 
tidal currents. 

The tidal currents often carry mud and sand 
hither and thither, building sand bars opposite the 
mouths of harbors. This is one of the reasons why 
the government is obliged to spend large sums of 
money every year in improving our harbors. For 
example, the tidal currents bring large quantities 
of sand into the mouth of New York harbor near 
Sandy Hook, and along the coast farther south. 

(2) Ocean Currents 

The winds which blow over the ocean, 
forming waves, also drift the water before 
Main cause of them. You yourself can cause 
ocean currents such a movement, in a small 
way, by blowing on the surface of a pail of 


drift of water, pushed along by the prevail¬ 
ing winds. In this way a great system of 
ocean currents is formed (Fig. 312), which 
have an important influence on the temper¬ 
ature of the earth. 

In our study of North America it was 
several times necessary to refer to two of 
these currents, the Gulf Stream and the 
Labrador Current. We shall now study the 
ocean currents,, on each side of our conti¬ 
nent, more fully. 

In the eastern part of the Atlantic, where 
the trade winds blow, the surface water on 
the two sides of the equator The North 
drifts slowly in the direction Atlantic Eddy 
of the trade winds ; that is, toward the belt 
of calms (Fig. 293). The water then 


Fig. 312. — A chart showing the principal ocean currents and ocean drifts of the world. 


water. This starts a current, or drift, of 
surface water in the direction of the moving 
air. Where the winds blow steadily, as in 
the trade wind belts, there is a permanent 


moves westward, as a great Equatorial Drift , 
until it reaches the coast of South America, 
which interferes with its course (Fig. 312). 
There the drift of water is divided, a part 


1-0 


loo 


loo 


1-0 


INDIAN l A 
oceanVn- 


o 


l-o 


160 


1 -u 


loo 

































































242 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


being turned southward, while the greater 
portion proceeds toward the northwest. 

The part that flows northwest is turned 
toward the right by the effect of rotation, 
as the winds are (p. 228); and the part 
that flows into the South Atlantic is turned 
to the left, also by the effect of rotation. 
The northern drift keeps turning to the 
right, and therefore, instead of continuing 
along the American coast,-swings out into 
the Atlantic toward Europe, 
to turn, it then passes south¬ 
ward, and finally returns to 
the trade wind belt, where 
it started, having made a 
complete circuit. This cir¬ 
cular drift of water in the 
North Atlantic is called the 
North Atlantic Eddy (Figs. 

312 and 313). 

Coming from the equatorial 
region, the water in this huge 
eddy is warm, and in it live 
countless millions of animals 
and floating plants. Among the 
latter, one of the most abundant 
is a seaweed, called Sargassum, 
some of which is thrown into the 
middle of the great eddy. There 
it has collected until it now 
forms a grassy, or Sargasso, sea, 
hundreds of square miles in ex¬ 
tent. Since the Sargasso Sea lies 
directly between Spain and the 
West Indies, Columbus was 
obliged to cross it on his first 
voyage of discovery; and his 
sailors, upon entering it, were much alarmed lest 
they might run aground, or become so entangled in 
ths weed that they could not escape. 

A portion of the drift of water which 
moves toward the northwest along the north- 
The Gulf ern coast of South America, 
Stream enters the Caribbean Sea and 

then passes into the Gulf of Mexico. This 
forms a broad, deep, gently flowing current 
into these inclosed seas, which are so nearly 
surrounded by warm tropical lands that the 
water grows even warmer than it was before. 

After swirling slowly round the Gulf of 
Mexico, the water escapes between Cuba 


and Florida. The current then becomes 
known as the Gulf Stream (I ig. 313), be¬ 
cause it comes from the Gulf of Mexico. 
Being forced to pass out through so narrow 
an opening, its rate of movement is much 
increased, as water in a hose is made to in¬ 
crease its speed by passing through the 
nozzle. Measure the distance from Key 
West to Havana (Fhg. 205). Near here 
the Gulf Stream flows as fast as four or five 
miles an hour. 


Being turned to the right by the effect of 
the earth’s rotation, the Gulf Stream soon 
leaves the American coast and flows north¬ 
east toward northern Europe. It broadens 
rapidly and joins forces with the western 
part of the great North Atlantic Eddy. 
In crossing the Atlantic, this combined 
current, or drift, is pushed along by the 
prevailing westerlies, so that it reaches the 
shores of northern Europe, and even enters 
the Arctic Ocean. In this part of its course 
the current is called the West Wind Drift. 
Some idea of its volume may be gained from 
the fact that it carries many times as much 


Continuing 



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Fig. 313. — A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to 
illustrate the currents clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if 
they were sharply hounded, like a river in its channel. However, the bound¬ 
aries of these great currents and drifts are so indefinite that one would not 
be able to detect the boundaries. 




























OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS 


243 


water as all the rivers of the world to¬ 
gether. 

Some of this water returns in a cold sur¬ 
face current, called the Labrador Current , 
The Labrador which flows southward along 
Current our northeastern coast (Fig. 

313). Starting from among the islands 
of northern North America, the Labrador 
Current flows past the coast of Labrador, 
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Eng¬ 
land as far as Cape Cod. Like all ocean 
currents in the northern hemisphere, it is 
turned toward the right; that is, since it 
flows southward, toward the west. This 
causes it to follow our coast very closely, 
keeping nearer our shore than the Gulf 
Stream does. 

Since there are two currents near together, a cold 
one from the north, and a warm one from the south, 
a vessel sailing from Boston to England must cross 
both. In winter, during a storm, a ship often be¬ 
comes covered with snow and ice while in the cold 
Labrador Current; but soon after entering the warm 
current this all melts away. 

Where the cold and warm currents approach each 
other, dense fogs are common. The reason for this 
is that warm, humid winds from the Gulf Stream 
| are chilled in crossing the Labrador Current. This 
causes some of the vapor to condense and form fog 
particles. The region near the coast of Nova Scotia 
and Newfoundland is one of the foggiest regions in 
the world, and therefore dangerous to vessels. 

In the Pacific Ocean, as in the Atlantic 
(Fig. 312), the water is driven before the 
Currents in the trade winds. Thus a broad 
North Pacific drift is formed, moving west¬ 
ward in the belt of calms. Then a warm 
current swings to the right past Japan, 
crossing the ocean toward Alaska. This 
is called the Japanese Current. Continu¬ 
ing to turn to the right, this ocean drift 
passes southward to complete the vast 
eddy. There is also a cold current from 
the north, between the Japanese Current 
and the coast of Asia, corresponding to the 
Labrador Current in the Atlantic, though 
smaller and not so cold. 

From what has been said, we see that 
the northeastern coasts of both North Amer¬ 


ica and Asia are swept by ocean currents 
from the cold north. On the other hand, 
the northvestern coasts of Europe and North 
America are approached by warm drifts of 
water from the south. 


In the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian 
oceans, there are eddies similar to those of the North 
Atlantic and the North Pacific. 

There is one very important dif- °f the 

ference, however. In the southern southern 
hemisphere the currents are turned oceans 
to the left, instead of the right, by the effect of rota¬ 
tion. Some of the water of these eddies joins the 
broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern 
ocean; but much of it turns northward until it 
once more reaches the trade wind belt, thus com¬ 
pleting the eddies (Fig. 312). 


The cold Labrador Current greatly in¬ 
fluences the temperature upon the neigh¬ 
boring land; for winds that 
blow over the Labrador Cur¬ 
rent are cooled, and carry the 
chill far inland. This is one 

of the reasons why the east Labrador 

J Current 


Effects of ocean 
currents on 
North America 

1. Effects of 


winds of New England are so 


cool, and why the New England coast is 
such an agreeable summer resort. 


The Labrador Current bears with it much ice 
from the Arctic region. Some of this is sea ice, 
or “ floe ice,” which has been frozen during the 
preceding winters, and some of it is in the form of 
gigantic icebergs which have broken off from the 
Greenland Glacier. Seals are commonly seen in the 
floe ice, and occasionally a polar bear, which preys 
upon the seal (Fig. 314). 

Most of the sea ice melts before reaching New¬ 
foundland ; but the icebergs may be carried south¬ 
ward one or two thousand miles before the air and 
water melt them away. (See Figure 312.) Indeed, 
some icebergs float even as far south as the paths 
followed by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since 
many of these bergs are larger than a large building, 
collision with one means shipwreck. A few years ago 
the Titanic, one of the largest ships ever built, was 
sunk by such a collision, resulting in great loss of life. 

While winds from over the Labrador 
Current are chilly, those that blow from 
over the Gulf Stream are 2. Effects of the 
warm. They are also humid. Gulf stream 
During cyclonic storms, winds from the 
warm waters off our southern coast often 








244 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



carry both warmth and moisture far into 
the interior of the country. 1 hese winds 
greatly temper the climate of our Eastern 
and Central states, so that the Gulf Stream, 
as well as the Labrador Current, has an 
important influence on our 
climate. 

The winds that blow over 
the warm waters of the North 
Pacific cause the 


ized nations of northern Europe. Notice on 
a map, how many large cities of northern 
Europe are in the same latitude as desolate 
Labrador. How different these two regions 
are ! One is highly civilized and densely 


3. Effects of 
warm currents climate ot the 

in the North Alaskan coast to 

Pacific 


be far warmer 
than that of southern Labrador 
in the same latitude. These 
prevailing west winds also 
bring an abundance of vapor 
to the Pacific coast, all the way 
from California to Alaska. 

Where these winds blow, the 
winters are mild and the rain 
heavy ; but the summers are 
cool, because the ocean water, FlG> 3U- ' 
though warmed, does not be¬ 
come greatly heated. On a globe notice 
that the state of Washington, with its 
pleasant climate, is in about the same lati¬ 
tude as the bleak island of Newfoundland, 
whose shores are bathed by the Labrador 
Current. 

The warm West Wind Drift of the 
North Atlantic is of special benefit to the 
Old World. When Nansen 


■ A polar bear hunting seal on the floe ice that is floating 
southward in the Labrador current. 


Effects of cur- 
rents in other started on his famous journey 

regions toward the north pole, he 

1. On the Arctic entered the Arctic Ocean 

0cean where this current does. He 

was able to proceed much farther north 
than would have been possible along any 
other route, because the warm drift of 
water keeps this part of the Arctic free 
from ice in summer. Notice, on Figure 312, 
how much farther north the limit of ice¬ 
bergs is on the coast of Europe than on the 
American coast. 

The west winds, warmed in passing over 

2. On western the West Wind Drift, have 

Europe made possible the great civil- 


settled ; the other is occupied only by 
scattered savages. This difference is due 
largely to the ocean currents and the winds 
that blow over them. 


When our first settlers came from England, they 
expected to find, in the New World, a climate like 
their own in the same latitude. They were not pre¬ 
pared for the severe winters which they did find; 
and largely for that reason the first settlements on 
the New England and Canadian coasts were failures. 

The cold current off the northeastern coast of 
Asia affects that region much as the Labrador Cur¬ 
rent does northeastern North Amer¬ 
ica. The winds that blow over it stenTAsia 
chill the Siberian coast, and cause 
the harbors, like that of Vladivostok, to be icebound 
in winter. This explains why Russia desired to hold 
the Chinese harbor at Port Arthur, south of Chosen, 
as a terminus of the Siberian railway, — so that her 
commerce and war ships might not be shut up in 
winter by ice. 


2 . Distribution of Temperature 

As a rule, the farther north one travels 
from the equator, the colder it grows ; but 
this is by no means always the case. As 






OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS 


245 




we have seen, there are several causes 
Why places in which interfere with this reg ti¬ 
the same lati- l lir decrease in temperature 
tude may have toward the poles. 

different tem- The p resence 0 f highlands 
peratures . Tl . ,, 

...~ a well- 


1S 


in northern Minnesota is more than 65°, 
while at New York City it is not over 50°. 

The winds are a third cause greatly in¬ 
fluencing the temperature. Where the pre¬ 
vailing winds are from the ocean, they cause 
an equable climate, as in California, near San 
Francisco and farther north/ 
Where they blow from the 
land, on the other hand, they 
are cool or cold in winter, and 
warm or hot in summer. 

A fourth cause for such 
difference in temperature is 
found in the ocean currents, 
as you have just seen. Give 
several examples of the influ¬ 
ence of ocean currents. 

If, therefore, we were to 
draw a line across the con¬ 
tinent of North Meaning of 


America, con¬ 
necting 


Fig. 315. — Isothermal chart of the United States for January. Why is it 
colder in the interior than on the east coast ? Why so warm on the west 
coast? Can you notice any influence of mountains? 

known fact that high mountains have a cold 
climate, even though in the torrid zone; 
and, for the same reason, plateaus may be 
colder than the lowlands farther north. 

A second cause is the 
fact that land warms and 
cools much more rapidly 
than water (p. 238). This 
is the reason why land be¬ 
comes hotter than the ocean 
in summer, and colder in 
winter. Thus, in northern 
Minnesota, far from the 
ocean, the average tempera¬ 
ture in January is below 
zero, while in July it is 
about 65° (Figs. 315 and 
316). In New York City, 
on the seacoast, the average 
in January is about 25° and 
in July not quite 75°. Thus 
the difference between the 
summer and winter months 


isothermal 
lines, and 
their value 


several 
points that have 
the same average temperature 
during any one month, or dur¬ 
ing the entire year, it would need to be a 
very irregular one, with some parts reach¬ 
ing much farther north than others. Such 
lines tell so much about temperature, in so 


Fig. 316. — Isothermal chart of the United States for July. Why is it cooler on 
the west coast than on the east coast ? 






























246 


general geography 


little space, that it is the custom to make 
maps to show them, as in Figures 315 and 
316. Since these lines connect the places 
that have the same temperature, they are 
called isothermal lines , or isotherms (iso 
means equal ; thermal , heat). A map or 
chart , showing the isotherms, is called an 
isothermal chart (Figs. 315 and 316). 


which is cold in winter and warm in 
summer. 

Figures 317 and 318 show similar isotherms for 
the whole world. Observe how these bend toward 
the equator where they cross mountain chains. 
Comparing these two figures, you will notice that 
the winter isotherms of the north temperate zone 
bend toward the equator over the continents. This 
is because the land is colder than the ocean. Dur- 



Trace several of the isotherms across the 
United States and explain why they bend 
as they do. Note that the iso- 


Differences be¬ 
tween January therms on the western coast 

and July iso- extend north and south, almost 

therms on land, parallel to the coast. This is 

with reasons , ,i •,. 

because the prevailing wester¬ 
lies bring the nearly uniform temperature 
of the Pacific Ocean to the land. There 
is only about 20° difference between the 
winter and summer temperatures on the 
western coast ; but on the eastern coast 
of the United States the difference be¬ 
tween summer and winter is much greater. 
Here, while some of the winds are from 
the ocean, still more are from the land, 


ing the summer, on the contrary, the isotherms 
curve poleward on the continents. On what conti¬ 
nent are these bends most striking? Why? What 
effect of the West Wind Drift do you find in Figure 

318? 


Notice also that the isotherms of the North Atlan¬ 
tic are close together as they leave America, but 
spread apart, like a fan, tow r ard the 

Old World. On the American side, 

, , ences on the 

the ocean currents approach each oceans w jth 

other, one from the north, bearing reason g 
Arctic cold, the other from the warm 
south. This causes a great difference in tempera¬ 
ture between our northern and southern coasts. 
On the European side of the Atlantic, on the other 
hand, one part of the warm West Wind Drift passes 
northward, raising the temperature and bending the 
isotherms far northward. Another part of the cur¬ 
rent turns southward. This water, flowing into a 















































































































OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND THEIR EFFECTS 


247 


warmer region, is somewhat cooler than the sur¬ 
rounding water. It therefore lowers the tempera¬ 
ture and causes the isotherms to bend southward. 
Thus the isotherms are spread apart. 

In the southern hemisphere, where there is less 
land, these differences are not nearly so striking. 
You can, however, find some bends of the isotherms 
near South America, Africa, and Australia. But 
south of these continents, where it is all water, the 


isotherms run nearly east and west, almost parallel 
to the circles of latitude. 

1. What are the three principal movements of 
ocean water? 2. Tell what you can about the wind 
. waves. 3. What are tides ? 4. Ex- 

eview plain their cause. 5. What about 

Ques ions their height ? 6. Mention some of 

their important effects. 7. Explain the main cause 
of ocean currents. 8. Describe the North Atlantic 
Eddy. 9. The Gulf Stream. 10. The Eabrador 
Current. 11. The currents in the North Pacific. 
12. The eddies of the southern oceans. 13. Explain 
the effects of the Labrador Current on North Amer¬ 
ica. 14. Of the Gulf Stream. 15. Of the warm 
I currents in the North Pacific. 16. State the effects 
of ocean currents on the Arctic Ocean. 17. On west¬ 
ern Europe. 18. On northeastern Asia. 19. Give four 
reasons why places in the same latitude may have dif¬ 
ferent temperatures. 20. What are isothermal lines, 


and what is their value? 21. What are isothermal 
charts? 22. Trace some of the isothermal lines 
across the United States for January and for July, 
and explain their differences. 23. Explain the direc¬ 
tion of isotherms on the North Atlantic. 24. Find 
on the maps other bends of the isotherms in crossing 
the ocean, and account for them. 25. Why are the 
isotherms so much more nearly parallel in the south¬ 
ern than in the northern hemisphere? 


1. If your home is upon the seacoast, find out 
about the high and low tides there. 2. What course 
might a vessel take in order to be „ ,. 

carried from Europe to America, and 
back again by ocean currents? 3. How do vessels 
try to avoid running into one another in dense fogs ? 
4. Learn more about Nansen’s voyage. 5. Which 
of the isothermal lines on Figures 315 and 316 is 
nearest to your home? 6. Which isotherm on 
Figure 315 runs near New Y r orlc and northern 
New Mexico? 7. On Figure 316, what isotherm 
runs through northern Maine and San Francisco? 
8 . How about the distance of these points from 
the equator? 9. Locate the cold ocean currents of 
the world; the warm currents. 10. Estimate the 
length of the circumference of the great eddy in 
the North Pacific. 11. How does Figure 318 show 
the effect of the warm current on the northern 
coast of Russia ? 



| 






















































































































































248 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 


V. Plants, Animals, and Peoples of 
the Earth 

i. Plants and Animals 

In our study of North America (p. 18) 
we found that there was little plant and 
Life in the animal life in the northern 

frigid zone part of the continent. Give 

the reasons. What plants are found there? 
What about insect life ? What large land 
animals are found, and how 
do they manage to live? 

The life upon the tundras 
of northern Europe and 
Asia corresponds closely to 
that on the barrens of North 
America ; and the few people 
found there live in much the 
same Avay as the Eskimos of 
North America. Besides 
the dog, however, the people 
of the tundras have the rein¬ 
deer as a domestic animal 
(Fig. 319). 

What countries of the 
New World are at least 
Life in the partly included 

torrid zone within the tor¬ 

rid zone (Fig. 285) ? De¬ 
scribe the climate of this 
part of North America (p. 23). What 
about the plant life found there (p. 23)? 
The animal life (p. 26) ? 

What portions of the Old World lie in 
the torrid zone? Extensive and dense for- 

1. in the rainy ests are found in the rainy 

section section of this zone in the 

Old World, as in the New. Animal life is 
abundant, too, since there is so much 
food. 

Among the animals insects are especially 
common. Some, like the beautiful butter¬ 
flies, thrive because of the great number and 
variety of tropical flowers ; others, like 
many species of ants, live in the decaying 
wood ; and still others have their homes in 
the ground. Some are harmless; but many, 


like the ants, which swarm in vast numbers, 
are very troublesome. . 

There are many birds, too, including hum¬ 
ming birds, parrots, paroquets, birds of para¬ 
dise, and other species, which are far famed 
for their beauty. Among the mammals 
there is less variety and abundance. Some, 
like the monkeys and sloths (Fig. 339), 
are tree dwellers ; others, like the tapir, live 
in the swampy undergrowth. Some very 
large animals, such as the rhinoceros and 


elephant (Fig. 460), still live in the dense 
forest, where it is difficult to hunt them. 
Occasionally, too, fierce animals, such as the 
tiger (Fig. 320), lurk in the densely grow¬ 
ing vegetation, ready to pounce upon the 
more defenseless, plant-eating animals. 

Reptiles also thrive in the warmth and 
dampness of the forests. Great boa con¬ 
strictors twine themselves, like huge vines, 
among the trees and' underbrush ; and poi¬ 
sonous serpents are common. The bodies 
of standing water encourage water life, — for 
example, the turtle and alligator among rep¬ 
tiles, and the hippopotamus and manatee 
among mammals. 

The labor required to clear away the dense 
tropical forest, and to keep it clear for 



From. RatzeVs History of Mankind. 

Fig. 319. — A camp in the tundra of northern Asia. The reindeer are used 
for drawing the sleighs and also as a source of milk and meat. 





PLANTS , ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES OF THE EARTH 


249 


farming, is far greater than in the temperate 
region of our country. This difficulty is 
increased, too, by the extreme heat, and by 
the damp, unhealthful climate. For these 



Fig. 320. — The tiger which lurks in the jungles of India. 

reasons, in spite of the very fertile soil, the 
zone of dense tropical forests is almost 
everywhere sparsely inhabited ; and in 


nearly every case its inhabitants are in¬ 
dolent savages. They have become accus¬ 
tomed to the climate, and they easily secure 
an abundant supply of food from the sur¬ 
rounding trees and bushes. Thus they find 
little work necessary. 

On either side of the tropical forest there 
is a belt where the temperature is always 
high, but where the rainfall 2 . in the 
varies with the season. Here savannas 
abundant rain falls in one season, while the 
climate is very dry in the opposite season 
(p. 234). Owing to the lack of rain dur¬ 
ing one season, dense forests are impossible, 
but some plants, such as grasses, thrive. 
These are therefore grass-covered lands, and 
are known as savannas. 

The downs of northern Australia, the park lands 
lying both north and south of the equator in Africa, 
the campos of Brazil, and the llanos of Venezuela and 
Colombia, are all examples of savannas. They are 
dry and barren in one season, fresh and green in the 
other. Trees, such as palms, line the streams; but 
elsewhere the land is open prairie. Plant-eating 
animals roam about; in Africa, for example, the an¬ 
telope, gazelle, zebra, giraffe, buffalo, elephant, and 



Fig. 321. — The lion, sometimes called the king of animals. 









250 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 




rhinoceros. In addition, there are some 
flesh-eating animals, such as the lion 
(Fig. 321). 

While tropical forests are suited only 
to the life of indolent savages, the open 
savannas invite human inhabitants, in 
spite of the heat. They also compel in¬ 
dustry, because men must make provision 
for the period of drought. Therefore, 
even those African negroes who inhabit 
the grass lands keep flocks and carry on 
rude forms of agriculture. Where settled 
by white men, these savannas are to-day 
mainly grazing lands. 


The savannas grade into tropical 
forests on the side next to the 
equator, but they 


3. In the desert 


gradually change into Fig. 322.— Sand dunes on the edge of au oasis in the Sahara desert. 


deserts on the other side. Locate 
these deserts in Australia south of the 
equator ; in Asia north of the equator ; 
and in Africa and America on both sides 
of the equator (Figs. 296, 298, 299 and 300). 
Explain the causes of their arid climate. 

In the desert there are vast areas in which the 
sand is drifted before the wind and piled into sand 
hills, or sand dunes (Fig. 322). There are also tracts 
glistening with salt where the water of lakes has 
evaporated and left salt upon the surface. Parts 
of the desert are broad plains; but there are also 
stony plateaus, deep valleys, and mountain ranges. 


Throughout most of the desert there is such a lack 
of rain that the surface is barren and desolate at all 
times. 

Even in such a region, however, plants and 
animals are not entirely lacking. In some sections 
there are scattered clumps of coarse grass; and 
there are prickly plants, like the cactus, in which 
the leaves and stems are as compact as possible to 
prevent evaporation. In place of a dense tropical 
foliage, like that of the tropical forest, there is a 
notable absence of leaves. Indeed, a large part of 
the plant is under ground. This is because the 
roots must struggle hard to find the necessary 
moisture, and the portion above ground must use 
as little moisture as possible, and 
waste none; for years may pass 
before raiu comes. 


That the desert soil is usu¬ 
ally fertile is proved by the 
fact that vegetation thrives 
wherever there is fresh water, 
as along a stream. Such 
watered spots in the desert 
are called oases. They make 
beautiful gardens in the midst 
of the barren desert. 


Fig. 323. — A camel on the desert of northern Africa. 


One of the few large animals 
native to the deserts of the Old 
World is the ostrich. Another, 
much used by man, is the camel 
(Fig. 323). The camel well illus¬ 
trates how animals become adapted 
to their surroundings. Each foot has 
a broad sole which aids the camel in 







PLANTS , ANIMALS , PEOPLES OF THE EARTH 


251 


traveling by preventing the feet from sinking into 
the sand. The nostrils can be closed when neces¬ 
sary, and the eyes are protected by thick lashes. 
Both of these devices help to keep out the sand, 
which is so often blown about. The camel is 
further provided with pouches in which enough 
water may be stored to serve its needs for two or 
three days. It also has a fatty hump, which 
furnishes nourishment to the body, so that the 
camel can go without food longer than most other 
animals. 

Human beings naturally shun the desert. 
Permanent homes can exist only on the 
oases (Fig. 322) ; but wandering tribes, or 


nomads , roam about over the desert. They 
live in tents (Fig. 324), and are engaged 
either in herding, or in driving caravans of 
camels laden with articles of trade. 

What part of North America is included 
within the north temperate zone ? What 
Life in the part of the Old World ? 
temperate What countries of South 

zones America are at least partly in¬ 

cluded within the south temperate zone ? 
What part of Africa ? Of Australia ? 

The land of the temperate zones is in 
large part forest-covered. Thus a broad 
1 In the well- f° res t belt crosses the north- 
watered sec- era interiors of both North 
tions America and Eurasia. Owing 

to the moderate rainfall in some parts, and 
to the rigor of the climate in others, the ' 


forest is more open than in the tropical 
zone. 

In the forests near the torrid zone, the 
trees are for the most part tropical in kind. 
In the cooler parts, however, they are 
mainly of two sorts : (1) the evergreens, in¬ 
cluding the pine, spruce, and hemlock, 
which have needle-like leaves that remain 
green throughout the winter; and (2) the 
deciduous trees, like the oak, maple, elm, 
and chestnut, whose leaves are much larger, 
but fall when frost comes. The temperate 
forest was the home of many wild animals, 
but these have now been greatly 
reduced in number. Name 
some of those of North America 
(p. 21). Owing to the cold¬ 
ness of the climate in the north¬ 
ern sections, these animals are 
protected by fur, which men 
find of much use. 

There are some treeless 
plains even in those parts of 
the temperate zone where the 
rainfall is heavy enough for 
tree growth. Examples of 
these are the 'prairies in the 
United States and some of the 
plains in southern Russia. 
What has been said about the 
cause of prairies (p. 23) ? 

In the temperate zones of the northern 
and southern hemisphere both the cleared 
forest lands and the humid, grass-covered 
plains have become the seats of extensive 
agriculture. In fact, the temperate zones 
are the agricultural regions of the world, 
and they might almost be called the zones of 
grain (Figs. 535, 536). Make a list of the 
grains that are cultivated; also of the fruits. 

It is in the temperate zones, too, where 
man has developed most highly. The sim¬ 
ple life of the savage in the tropical forest, 
and of the Eskimo in the cold regions, offers 
a striking contrast to the varied life of 
the agricultural people in the temperate 
belt. Not only are the latter more highly 
civilized, but they have so increased in 



Fig. 324. — A family of nomads and their tent on the Sahara desert 

in Morocco. 







GREENLAND 


ARCTIC CIRC 


ALASKA 


BRITISH 
I 5LESLn 


.NEWFOUNDLAND 


IERMAN 


FRANCE 


AZORES'® 


ITED 


'ERSIA 


OF CANCER 


•PHILIPPI 


WEST INI 


HAWAIIAN IS. 


CEYLON 1 


EQUATOR 


SUMAT 


JTH 

BRAZIL 

jERICA'} 


JAVA 


SAMOA 


AGASCAR 


TROPIC 


AUSTRALIA 


OF CAPRICORN 


THE WORLD 

DISTRIBUTION OF ANDIAL REGIONS 

North American Region | \ Eurasian Region 

South American. Regioh □ Oriental Region 

Australian.Region | | Ethiopian Region 


ZEALAND 


TASMANIA 


WILLIAMS ENGRAVING 


FIG. 325. 



FIG. 326, 


































































































































































PLANTS , ANIMALS , A.V/l PEOPLES OF THE EARTH 


253 


numbers that the temperate zone is the 
most densely populated belt in the world. 
Suggest some reasons for this. 

In addition to the prairies there are 
other treeless, grass-covered lands in the 
2. in the arid temperate belts. These are 
lands usually in the interior of con¬ 

tinents, on the border of the deserts, where 
the rainfall is light. In the Old World, 
where these arid tracts are called 
steppes, there is a broad strip of 
treeless land extending from south¬ 
eastern Europe to central Asia. 

The Great Plains of western North 
America, and the treeless plains, 
or p>ampas , of Argentina are also 
steppes (Fig. 34G). 

On these steppes the melting snow 
and the spring rains cause the grass to 
be green in spring and early summer; 
but drought then changes it to gray 
and yellow. There are no trees 
excepting along the streams ; and 
there is too little rainfall for agri¬ 
culture without irrigation. 

The wild animals ai'e mainly 
grass eaters. Formerly the steppes 
supported great herds of deer, 
antelope, and bison ; but cattle, 
sheep, horses, and camels have 
now largely taken their place. 

In the Old World the inhab¬ 
itants of the steppes have for 
many centuries led a pastoral 
life, and have become nomads. 

They wander about, living in 
tents during the summer; 
but in winter they build 
more permanent homes for 
the sake of protection against 
the weather. 



Fig. 327. 


The kinds of plants and animals are not 
the same in different sections of the world. 
Distribution of Thus, the native animals and 
animals and plants of Australia are quite 
plants different from those of Asia or 

America. There are several reasons why 
they do not naturally spread all over the 
earth. One of the most important of these 
is that the ocean is in the way. It is a 
barrier that they cannot easily cross. 


Mountains and deserts arc other barriers. 
Thus, lands that are separated by such bar¬ 
riers are quite apt to have different kinds of 
animals and plants; while lands that are 
connected, or that were formerly connected, 
have animals ( fauna ) and plants { flora} 
more nearly alike. The map (Fig. 325) 
shows the different zones of animal life in 
the world. What are their names? 

2 . Peoples 

Man, like plants and animals, varies in 
different parts of the world. He is in¬ 
fluenced by his surroundings, as they 
ilN are, and in the course of time has 
developed differently in the various 
lands of the earth. People hold 
different views about the origin 
of the human race and its divi¬ 
sions, but mankind in general 
may be divided into the four 
great groups described below. 

All together there are over 
one and one half billion human 
beings upon the principal divi- 
earth, or nearly 
twenty times the 
number in 
the United 

these, over one hundred 
and eighty-five million 
are negroes (Figs. 326 
and 327), or Ethiopians. 
This is often called the 
black race. There are 
many divisions of this 
group, but they all have 
a deep brown or black skin; short, black, 
woolly hair ; broad, flat noses ; and promi¬ 
nent cheek bones. 

The home of the Ethiopians is Africa, south of 
the Sahara Desert (Fig. 326), though many have 
been carried to other lands as slaves, and have there 
mingled more or less with the other races. The 
negroes in Africa are either savages, or baibaiians 
of low type; but in other lands they have often ad¬ 
vanced to a civilized state. 

The native Australians (Fig. 522), the Papuans of 
New Guinea, the Negritos of the Philippines, and 


sions of man¬ 
kind 

1. Ethiopians 

States. Of 


-A Zulu, one of the tribes of Africau 
negroes. 




254 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



the blacks on some other islands in that part of the 
world, resemble the negroes most closely, though 
differing from them in some important respects. 
They are shorter; their hair is less woolly, their 
noses straighter, and their lips less thick. 

A second great division of the human 
race is that of the American Indians , often 
2. American called the red race (pp. 26-28). 
Indians It is the smallest of the 

four groups, numbering only about fifteen 


3. Mongolians 


Photograph from Bureau of Ethnology. 
Fig. 328. — A North American Indian, one of the red race. 


re¬ 

in 


million. These people, who in some 
spects resemble the Mongolians, were 
possession of both North and South 
America when Columbus discovered the 
New World. They are distinguished by 


a copper-colored skin, prominent cheek 
bones, black eyes, and long, coarse, black 
hair (Figs. 326 and 328). 

The third division, the Mongolian , or 
yellow race , numbers about six hundred 
and thirty million. They are 
mainly Asiatic people, though 
some, like the Finns, Lapps, and Turks, 
have migrated to Europe. 

The Mongolians, as represented by the 
Chinese and Japanese (Figs. 
326 and 330), have a yellowish, 
or in some cases even a white, 
skin, prominent cheek bones, 
small oblique eyes, a small 
nose, and long, coarse, black 
hair. The Malays are a divi¬ 
sion of the yellow race. The 
great majority of Mongolians 
are civilized, although their 
kind of civilization differs 
from that of the white race. 

By far the largest and most 
civilized of the four divisions 

of mankind is 
,i 7 ., 4. Caucasians 

the w kite, or 

Caucasian , race , which num¬ 
bers about six hundred and 
ninety million. They are 
also the most widely scattered, 
being found now in great 
numbers on all the continents. 
Their original home is not 
known. 

While they differ greatly 
from one another, two main 
branches are recognized : 
(1) the fair type, with florid 
complexion, light brown, 
flaxen, or red hair, blue or 
gray eyes, and height above 
the average ; (2) the dark 

type, with fair skin, dark 
brown or black hair, often wavy or curly, 
and black e} r es. 

The leaders among these races are the 
whites, who, having learned the use of 
ships in exploring distant lands, have 






PLANTS, ANIMALS , AND PEOPLES OF THE EARTH 


255 


spread with great rapidity. Being more 
advanced than the other races, the white 

Extent to race ^ as conc l u ered the weaker 
which the Cau- people and taken their lands 
casians are from them, so that now they 
leaders, with p U l e a l mos t the whole world 
reasons ( Fig . 326 ). The only divi¬ 

sion that has held out against them is that 
of the Mongolians, whose very numbers 
have in large measure served to protect 
them. 

Every race has some form of religion. 
Among ignorant savages it is little more 
than superstition. They are 
surrounded by nature, which 
they do not understand. They 
seek a cause and, seeing none, 
are led to believe in spirits. 
Some of these are supposed to be evil, 
others good. Believing 
that these spirits have great 
influence over their lives, 
they try to win favor with 
them by offering sacrifices 
and worshiping them. 


Forms of re¬ 
ligion, and 
their distribu¬ 
tion 

1. Superstition 


I ! 


Such religion — if it may be 
so called — takes many forms. 
IlfM'l Some races believe in witch¬ 

craft ; and among them the 
witch doctor is sometimes more 
powerful than the ruler himself. 
To ward off evil influences, 
charms are worn, curious rites 
are observed, and images or 
other objects, called fetishes 
(Fig. 329), are worshiped be¬ 
cause they are believed to possess 
some magic power. Among 
these objects are included fire, 
the sun, the earthquake, and 
many animals. They have little 
or no idea of God. 

All people with some such 
views as these are often said to 
have no religion. From our 
point of view they have no true 
religion; but they have something related to it. 


Raize l'a History of 
Mankind. 

Fig. 329. — A negro 
fetish from Africa. 


Among the civilized races there are 
forms of belief in which the idea of God 
is much higher, and in which the doc¬ 


trine of future reward and punishment is 
taught. Of these religions five call for 
special mention. 

Buddhism , followed especially in eastern 
Asia (Fig. 332), was established in India 
five or six hundred years be- „ „ 

c T 2. Buddhism 

tore the time of Christ. It 

was the result of the work and teachings 



Fig. 330. — Japanese women, belonging to the Mongolian 
or yellow race. 


of Buddlia (Fig. 331). There are many 
differences in the religious beliefs and cus¬ 
toms of the people who follow Buddha, 
and in consequence there are many sects. 

Brahmanism is one of the most common 
forms of belief in India and other parts of 
Asia. It would be difficult 

, ,.3. Brahmanism 

to correctly describe the reli¬ 
gions of the Asiatic people in a few words; 
but idolatry , or the worship of idols, is com¬ 
mon among them. Ancestor worship is com¬ 
mon in China ; and the doctrine of caste in 
India, — that is, the doctrine of class dis- 





256 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY 



Fig. 331. — A great statue of Buddha. 


tinction. Both of these doctrines, which 
are a part of their religion, are opposed to 


progress, as you will learn later (pp. 398 
and 387). 

The Jewish religion, still followed by 
large numbers of people, upholds the wor¬ 
ship of one righteous God as 4. The Jewish 
taught in the Old Testament; religion 
but they reject the New Testament. 

The prophet Mohammed lived about six 
centuries after Christ, and the Koran Con¬ 
tains his teachings. Moham- 5. Mohamme- 
medans deny that Christ was damsm 
divine. This religion has spread by the 
sword with wonderful rapidity, especially 
among the half-civilized people of Asia and 
Africa (Fig. 332). Many of its followers 
became fanatics who, believing that they 
thus obtained future happiness, willingly 
died if they could die killing a Christian. 

The Christian religion, the common belief 
in America and most of Europe, has spread 
far and wide, until it now 6. Christianity, 
numbers nearly four hundred and its value 
and eighty million followers. Its success, 
however, must not be measured by numbers 
alone ; for nearly all of the most civilized 



GREENLAND 


_ 


CAFRlfcA' 




Christians 


Mohammedan 


Buddhist 


Brahman 


Heathen 


WIUIAft S ENGRAVING I 


Fig. 332. — Map of religions of the world. 






















































































PLANTS , ANIMALS , AND PEOPLES OF THE EARTH 


257 


nations of the world are Christian nations 
(Fig. 332). It is no accident that this is 
so, for Christianity has been one of the 
chief factors in making civilization possible. 

Religious belief has had much to do with 
inventions and the growth of industry. 
The Chinese, for example, have long opposed 
new inventions because their ancestor wor¬ 
ship led them to have too much reverence 
for past customs. Partly for such reasons, 
our study of geography is chiefly concerned 
with Christian countries ; for there it is that 
we find the most varied and extensive uses 
of the earth in the service of man. 


1. What are the conditions of plant and animal 
. life in the frigid zone? 2. In the 

_ .. rainy portion of the torrid zone? 

" UCS 1 DS 3. In the savannas? 4. In the desert 

portions of the torrid zone? 5. In the well-watered 


portions of the temperate zones ? G. In the arid lands 
of the temperate zones? 7. What about the distri¬ 
bution of animals and plants? 8. Tell what you can 
about the Ethiopians; their characteristics and 
distribution. 9. Do the same for the American 
Indians. 10. Mongolians. 11. Caucasians. 12. To 
what extent are the Caucasians leaders among these 
races? Give reasons. 13. Name the principal forms 
of religion. 14. Give some facts about religious super¬ 
stition. 15. Buddhism and Brahmanism. 16. Jew¬ 
ish religion. 17. Mohammedanism. 18. Christianity. 

1. Make a collection of different.kinds of wood. 
2. Notice how some of them are polished for use as 
furniture. 3. Visit a museum to „ 
see specimens of tropical animals. ^ 

4. Examine a cactus closely. 5. Examine and com¬ 
pare the foliage of some evergreens and deciduous 
trees. 6. Collect pictures of animals belonging to 
different parts of the world. 7. How many of the 
four divisions of mankind are represented in your 
own neighborhood? 8. Collect pictures for the 
school, showing the kinds of dress worn by the dif¬ 
ferent races of mankind. 





80° 



OTW.nm.ou. 

s E A ^ UF« ) 

■- " sAn— 


B B 


e aL n 


3 L 1 r 

/centkae 

I ^MEl 

jfoBQHVfO 


pt.Galllnasif^ 


BarranqR 

Out; of 
'J)ar ' 


A* 


% 


% l]Ug)4<iJ 
BuenaWntur^c 

^0 po,^ay a " 



°* Ay 

■Ft Jr 

Vy? 


^ANTILLES* 6 V LUCIA < a "-> 

v q Acoa nnc 


BARBA008 

(an.) 


. of Spain 

) TR INIOAO (8h.) 


llanos m '“Z 



0 yA n 


^ . v a 




r& ~* 


'l (4 



u tH* °fff e 




Ttuj'", 0 


,,Trinidad 

xSoratci \ N 
Mt.lllimnn 
Lft Paz 


Matto Grosso 


Vf 


rf l ' u nz \/\f 

MvM? 4 “wr : 

VricaVr^ vPk'-^ ^-^SlTCRE' 

VK . n^tFi’ci o '_ 



Cape 
7 ftoqug 

Vatal 


!a * ) / — e a u/of iGoyaz 

lanta Cruz W Matto G r ° * * ° ' 



rjanuaria 


8ERRA 


Tania 



/Tucuinan 




J \fa>-Ti 

Mt. Aconcagua 


concuy^^5i^j \\pendoza t 


, TL 'C-/ Peloia 

'avsandu 


JOAN FEBNA n ° eS lS ' Valparaiso/ 


tando 






I Cruz Alta 


? Itaiahy 
^Desterro 

] s.catharina i 


10 


20 



V . * * 
JC.San Antonio 

jNlar del Plata 
C. Corrientes 


S. Matias Gulf 

pS&erto Madrin 
Rawson 


'C. o/ Two B tys 

.... o/ 

.George 

C. Tres Puntas 


, Strait of 
i .Magellan 

TIERRA 
OEL FUEGG 

STATEN |. 

moste\«^ Cape Horn 


FALKLAND ISLANDS 

(rolgREAT BRIT Air:) 

WEST '•Mk, 


-SOUTH AMERICA 

Scale of Miles f f 

0 200 400 GOO 800 1000 

duet with over 500,000-Rio de Janeiro 

Cities with 200,000 to 500,000_ Santiago 

Cities with 100,000 to 200,000_Valparaiso 

Smaller Places -Santa Cruz 

Capitals with less than 100,000_ASUNCION 

Capitals Other Places o 


EAST I. 


90° 


70° Eongitude 


West 



Greenwich 


FIG. 333. 

The boundary of Ecuador is in dispute. 























































































PART III. SOUTH AMERICA 


In what zones does South America lie ? 2 . What 
climate would you expect in the northern part? In 

Man Stud the cent,ra ^ P ar t? In the southern 

™ ^ part? 3. During what months does 

winter come in the extreme south ? 4. What large 
rivers drain the continent? 5. Do you find many 
lakes? Suggest a reason. 6. To what extent is the 
coast line irregular? 7. Draw an outline map and 
locate upon it the mountains and rivers. Add the 
boundary lines of the principal countries. 8 . Where 
are most of the islands? 9. Find Cape Horn. It 
is south of what island? What strait separates this 
island from the mainland? 10. Which country has 
most railways? What does this indicate about the 
people there? 11. In what zone is that country? 
How may the climate there have influenced the 
building of railways? 


I. General Facts 


Lo- 


Surface 

features 

1. Resemblance 
between North 
and South 
America 


highland 


Recall the shape of North America 
cate its two main 
masses. What are their 
names ? Which is the higher 
and more extensive ? What 
about its volcanoes ? Where 
are its principal plains? 

As you can see from the map, South 
America is quite like North America in its 
surface features. South America, like 
North America, is triangular in shape, 
being broad at the north and tapering 
toward the south. Its principal highlands 
are on the two sides, as in North America 
(Fig. 9). The western highlands, called 
the Andes (Fig. 334), form one of the loft¬ 
iest mountain systems in the world; and 
between the ranges are many deep valleys 
and some lofty plateaus, as in our western 
Cordillera. From the northern to the 
southern end of South America, those moun¬ 
tains rise from the very seacoast, and ex¬ 
tend far inland. 


Many of the highest peaks are volcanic cones, one 
of them, Aconcagua, in Argentina, reaching an eleva¬ 
tion of nearly twenty-three thousand feet. This is one 
of the loftiest peaks in the world. Several of the 
volcanoes are still active, and some of the eruptions 
have been terribly violent. Earthquakes, too, are 
frequently felt in this region. 


The most extensive highlands on the 
eastern side of South America are .in east¬ 
ern Brazil (Fig. 334). Like New England, 
this is a region of high hills and low moun¬ 
tains. The highest point is a little over 
ten thousand feet above sea level. The 
Guiana highland (Fig. 334), between the 
Amazon and Orinoco rivers, resembles the 
upland of Brazil, but is separated from it 
by the Amazon Valley. The remainder of 
the continent is lowland (Fig. 335), and 
mainly a vast plain, extending from south¬ 
ern Argentina to the Caribbean Sea. 

Although the surface features of the two 


continents are so much alike, there are two 

important differences. In the 2 Differences 

first place, their large rivers between North 

flow in different directions and South 
„ . „ . America 

from those ot our continent. 

Describe the three principal river sys¬ 
tems of North America (Fig. 8). Make a 
sketch of the three largest- rivers of South 
America. One of these is the largest in 
tiie world. Which is it ? Which one most 
nearly corresponds to the Mississippi in 
position and direction of flow ? 

A second important difference between 
the two continents is found in the coast 
lines. It will be remembered that much 
of the North American coast has been made 
irregular by the sinking of the land. Thus 
many good harbors have been formed. 
Much of the South American coast, on the 


259 





0 BARBADOS 


LESSER 

ANTILLES 


Pt'.GalUncis^s 


jua * L_ 


Qulfof__ 

~Parien 




SIERRA 

H *CARAIMA 


■ fhe 


eqoatob 


EQUATnP 


AR*j| 


Volv 
Chim b0 Y 
tfe. l 

Otilf, 0f 

OMyi"t ui y 

j.BlanooL, 

ijrino Pt-S 


Mt.Sorata. 


\ PLATEAUS 
OFT \ 
MA TTO CjROSSO 


Mt. Illimani 


BOLIVIA 


* da 
deika 


|z#- 

^Atacam.a Vol 


CAPWfORN 


TB0jP_ 


SAUN. 


FERNANDEZ 


5Vjn Mafias 


CHILOE 


CHONOS 

ARCH<PELAGOq^ 


.ungton 
\ ISLANOS 


ftoQue 


uol S T .AMBR° se 


FEV.I* 


a 


PHYSICAL MAP OF 

SOUTH AMERICA 


Gulf of 
St. George 


Seal® of Miles 
1 


800 1000 


-‘"(I 


400 600 

KEY 


Over 6,600 ft. 

From 1,650 to 6,500/A 
From 650 to 1,650 ft. 
From 0 to 650 ft. 

From 0 to 6,500/A 
From G.500 to 13,000/A 
Below 13,000/A 


K & ^ 

Strait of 
VL ,/) \K \MageUan 

Strait of o(Lja? V TIERRA 
yiageGan ^yPEL FUEGO 

\ Cape Horn 


?W FALKUND 


Sea Let'*l 


WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N 


80° Longitude 7Q° West 00° from 


50° Greenwich 40 c 


•■o' 


FIG. 334. 


































































GENERAL FACTS 


201 



"0 


Fia. 33» -Relief map of South America 













262 


SOUTH AMERICA 



other hand, has been rising. This has 
made the coast line straight, because the 
raised sea bottom is so level. The west¬ 
ern coast of South America is the most reg¬ 
ular coast, of long extent, in the world. 
For a distance of three thousand miles there 
are very few good natural harbors. What 


(2) The rainfall 
in the tropical 
zone east of the 
mountains 


Fig. 336. — A view in the lofty snow-covered Andes. 


effect must this have upon the development 
of the continent ? 

What portion of South America has a 
tropical climate ? How do you know ? 
Climate Where does the Tropic of 

1. Temperature Capricorn cross the continent? 
What countries of South America are partly 
or wholly in the temperate zone ? During 
what months do they have summer ? What 
effect on temperature are their north winds 
likely to have? What part of South Amer¬ 
ica has a climate much like that of the 
United States? 

The winds, together with the highlands, 
are the key to the rainfall. On the map 

2. Rainfall (Tig. 294) it is seen that the 
(l) The winds belt of calms extends across 
the continent in the neighborhood of the 
equator. North of this belt the northeast 


trade winds blow (Fig. 294), while soutli 
of it is the zone of southeast trade winds. 
Still farther soutli are the horse latitudes, 
and then come the prevailing westerlies 
(Fig. 293), which blow across the southern 
end of the continent. 

As one would expect, there is heavy rain¬ 
fall (Fig. 296) in the belt of 
calm s. T h e 
northern coast 
m ust also re¬ 
ceive abundant 
rains, because the trade winds 
blow from the ocean and are 
forced to rise in passing over 
the slopes. The highlands of 
eastern Brazil are in most places 
well watered by the vapor¬ 
laden southeast trades (Fig. 
296). The trade winds lose 
much of their moisture in 
traveling across the continent, 
but on approaching the Andes 
they are forced to a still 
greater height. Accordingly, 
the eastern side of this range 
is wet by frequent rains. 

You have learned (p. 234) that 
the belts of rainfall shift northward 
and southward, each year, as the season changes 
(Figs. 294 and 295). Therefore, there is a belt, on 
each side of the equator, where the laud is dry at 
one time of year and well watered in the opposite 
season. These belts of grass lands, or savannas 
(p. 249), lie on both sides of the equatorial forest. 
They are called llanos in the Orinoco Valley, and 
campos in Brazil. 

South of the belt of calms, in Peru and 
northern Chile (Fig. 296), the western slopes 
and valleys of the Andes are (3) Inthetropi . 
far too arid for agriculture cal zone west of 
without irrigation, and some the mountains 
portions are true deserts (Fig. 337). This 
region is arid because the Andes Moun¬ 
tains prevent the trade winds from reach¬ 
ing it. Here the prevailing winds blow 
from the south ; that is, parallel to the 
coast. For this reason they have little 
vapor ; and since they are blowing to - 







GENERAL FACTS 


263 




ward the equator, anil therefore becoming 
warmer, they do not give up their mois¬ 
ture. Thus there are deserts even on the 
very coast. 

Farther south, in Chile, the influence of 
the prevailing westerlies is 
( 4 ) Inthesouth felt. In this 
temperate zone part of the con¬ 
tinent, therefore, it is the 
western side that receives the 
rain, while the eastern part 
is dry (p. 232). In rising 
over the land these west 
winds, from the ocean, cause 
abundant rainfall in central 
and southern Chile ; but, 
being robbed of their vapor 
as they cross the mountains, 
they descend as dry winds 
upon the plains of Argen¬ 
tina. With what portion of 
the United States may the climate of 
western Argentina be compared ? 

From the above we see that, while most 
of South America is well supplied with 


humidity and high temperature favor 
luxuriant plant life (Fig. pi an t and 
338). So dense are the vast animal life 
jungles of the Amazon that 1 . Plant life 
travel through them is almost impossible 


(p. 267), and immense areas have never 
been explored. In the desert of the west 
coast, on the other hand, plant life is very 
scanty (Fig. 337). There are some parts — 
for instance, the Desert of 
Atacama in northern Chile 
— where there is almost no 
life of any kind. 

In the south temperate 
zone, and on many of the 
mountain slopes of the tor¬ 
rid zone, where the climate 
is cool, and the rainfall 
moderate, the land is forest- 
covered ; but these forests 
are much more open than 
the tropical jungle. The 
extreme southern part of 
the continent has a climate 
so cold that the plants be¬ 
come dwarfed, as in north¬ 
ern Canada. 


Fig. 338. — A view in the dense jungle of South America. 


Fig. 337.— A view in the desert of Bolivia in the Andes.. The animals 

are llama. 


rain, two extensive areas, on opposite sides 
of the Andes, are arid. Locate them 
(Fig. 299). 

In the warm, rainy belt the great 


In the tropical forest are many insects and beau¬ 
tiful birds Among the larger ani- g Animal , ife 
mals may be mentioned the Iriut- 
eating monkey, the fierce jaguar WJj 1 ' 

(Fig. 339), which preys upon other 












IGUANA 


MONKEY 


SLOTH 


TAPIR 


ALLIGATOR 


MANATEE, 


4 JAGUAR 


constR^ 


CONDOR 


RHEA 


The M.N.Co.,Buffai.o. LLAMA 


ARMADILLO 


Fig. 339.— Some of the South American animals, 










GENERAL FACTS 


265 


animals, and the sloth (Fig. 339), a creature which 
sleeps suspended, back downward, from the branches 
of the trees. There are also many reptiles, including 
serpents and the iguana, a tree lizard which grows 
to a length of several feet. Some of the serpents 
are small and poisonous; others, like the boa con¬ 
strictor (Fig. 339), are large, and powerful enough 
to crush a deer in their coils. 

The many beautiful butterflies and the ants are 
especially interesting. The termites, commonly 
called white ants, live in colonies, and build houses 
of earth. With so many insects there are, naturally, 
numerous kinds of insect eaters. One of the most 
peculiar of these is the ant-eater (Fig! 339). With 
its long claws it digs the ants from their earthy or 
woody dwelling places, while its sharp-pointed snout 
and long tongue aid in finding and devouring its 
food. 


The tapir (Fig. 339), a large animal five or six 
feet in length, wanders about at night, feeding along 
the water courses. The armadillo (Fig. 339), a bur¬ 
rowing animal covered with an armor, rolls itself 
into a ball when attacked by an enemy, thus pro¬ 
tecting its soft under parts. In the river waters 
and swamps are fishes, turtles, and alligators (Fig. 
339). The fish and the turtle eggs are among the 


(2) On the 
plains and 
among the 
mountains 


chief foods of the forest Indians. The manatee 
(Fig. 339), or sea cow, lives in both fresh and salt 
water, and ascends the Amazon even as far as 
Ecuador. 

On the grassy plains herds of deer roam about, 
and also the rhea (Fig. 339), — often 
called the American ostrich, — one 
of the few large running birds. It 
lives on the open plains, as in Pata¬ 
gonia, where herds of guanaco, a 
kind of wild llama, are also found. 

Among the crags and peaks of the Andes, dwells 
the condor (Fig. 339), the largest of flying birds, — 
so large that it kills and carries off small deer. In 
the mountain valleys live the llama (Fig. 339) and 
two related species, the vicuna and alpaca, both 
wild and domesticated (Figs. 337 and 353). Like 
other mountain dwellers, the llama is so sure-footed 
on the rocks that it is of great use as a beast of 
burden; and the cold climate causes it to have a 
thick coat of wool which is of value to man. Be¬ 
cause of its usefulness the llama is sometimes called 
the American camel. 


* 


When South America was discovered by 
The inhab- Columbus,, it was inhabited 
itants only by red men. Many of 

l. The natives these were savages; and even 
(1) Savages to-day some of the forest In- 
and barbarians c jj ans are savages living almost 

solely upon fish, game, and the abundant 



fruits. It is unsafe for white men to go 
among some of them, and indeed there are 
forest tribes which are still cannibals. 

1 he red men whom the early explorers 
found along the eastern coast and some of 
the larger rivers, were in the lower stages 
of barbarism like most of the North Amer¬ 
ican Indians. They 
cultivated the soil in a 
crude way, and manu¬ 
factured a few simple 
implements. Many 
Indians, in the more 
remote districts, still 
live in this 
primitive fash¬ 
ion, though 
large 
numbers 
have 
mixed 


Fig. 340. — Savage Indians who live in the tropical forest 
of eastern Peru, east of the Andes. 


(2) The Incas 


with the white settlers and adopted their 
customs. 

Among the Andes, especially in Peru, 
Bolivia, and Ecuador, the Spanish explorers 
found tribes of Indians, called 
Incas , who had developed far 
beyond their neighbors. Indeed, like the 
Pueblo and Aztec Indians of North Amer¬ 
ica (p. 27), they had reached the early 
stages of civilization. Such advance was 
favored by the temperate climate of their 
mountain valley homes, and by the arid 








266 


SOUTH AMERICA 



Fig. 341. —• A stone bridge in Bolivia, built by the Incas before 
South America was discovered by white men. 


still greater mixture of 
peoples. Therefore, while 
there are still pure-blooded 
Indians and negroes, and 
also pure-blooded white men, 
especially Spanish and Portu¬ 
guese, the greater number of 
the South Americans are a 
mixture of two or more of 
these very different races. 

Of late there have been many 
immigrants from European coun¬ 
tries, especially „ 

from Germany and . , 

, _ J immigrants 

southern Europe. 

They have gone mainly to soul hern 
Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, and 
have helped greatly in the develop¬ 
ment of these countries. 


country and the mountain barriers, which 
served to protect them from the inroads of 
their more savage neighbors. 

By the aid of irrigation the Incas tilled the soil, 
cultivating the potato, corn, and Peruvian cotton, 
all of which they had improved from wild plants. 
They domesticated the llama and alpaca for their 
wool, and for use as work animals. They organ¬ 
ized armies, built roads (Fig. 341), and had a rude 
postal and express system by swift runners. Al¬ 
though they had not invented writing, they kept 
records by means of knotted strings. Their em¬ 
pire, which extended for more than two thousand 
miles along the Andes, and from the Pacific coast 
to the trackless forests of the Amazon, was gov¬ 
erned by a powerful chief whose capital was Cuzco 
in Peru. The stage of advancement reached by 
these red men was wonderful. 


The Spaniards, attracted by the discovery 
of rich deposits of gold and silver, seized 
2 The Span- almost all of South America, 
iards and their except Brazil, which was set- 
influence tied py t] ie Portuguese. They 

treated the natives with great cruelty, espe¬ 
cially the Incas, whom they robbed of their 
treasures and reduced to slavery. 

As in North America, the Spaniards in¬ 
termarried freely with the Indians, so that 
the present inhabitants of South America 
are, to a large extent, of mixed blood. The 
introduction of negro slaves has led to a 


Spain maintained her control in South 
America for fully three hun- Government 
dred years. In .the early part 
of the nineteenth century, however, the 





Janeiro 


Paolo 


Aires 


SOUTH AMERICA . 

Density of Population 40 

Under 2 inhabitant s per sq. mile 
2 to 64 n *' ° 

64 to 256 n “ n 

256 to 612 •• " «' 

| Over 512 “ n n 6 o° 

Cities with over 100,000 
inhabitants are shown 
S0° 40° 30“ 20° 


^ , 
10 - 

o 

o o- 


WILLIAMS ENG. CO. 


Fig. 342. 









BEAZIL 


267 


colonies became so dissatisfied with Spanish 
rule that they fought for independence. 
'Ihey were successful and formed indepen¬ 
dent republics, modeled after the United 
States. Brazil also became independent of 
Portugal, and, after being for a long time 
ruled by an emperor, established a repub¬ 
lican form of government in 1889. Every 
country of South America is now an inde¬ 
pendent republic except Guiana, which is 
divided among three European nations, as 
shown on the map. 


II. Brazil 

This is the largest country in South 
America. It is even larger than the United 
States without Alaska, and 
nearly as large as the whole 
of Europe. While extending north of the 
equator on one side, it reaches into the 
south temperate zone on the other. How 
many degrees of latitude does it include ? 

Nearly all of Brazil is in the Torrid Zone, 
hence its climate is warm. 
Since it is situated on the 
eastern slope of the continent, its climate is 
also moist. Why is this true (Fig. 296) ? 

Eastern Brazil is a highland region. 
Numerous streams drain this upland in 

various directions. Point out 
Its drainage some 0 f them (Fig. 381). 

What is the name of the largest river not 
tributary to the Amazon ? 

The northern third of Brazil is mainly 
a vast level plain, drained by the Amazon 
River. The rainfall in the Amazon Valley 
is so heavy, and the slope of the land so 
gentle, that the river and its larger tribu¬ 
taries are swollen to great breadth. At 
times of flood these rivers overflow the sur¬ 
rounding country and change it to an im¬ 
mense swamp crossed by many channels. 
In some places the Amazon is several miles 
wide, and resembles a lake rather than a 
river. 

The Amazon is navigable for ocean ves¬ 
sels nearly to the base of the Andes, a dis¬ 


tance of about 2500 miles from the sea- 
coast. Some of the tributaries also are 
navigable. Along this water Navigation on 
way there are some good-sized the rivers 
towns, such as Manaos, which are reached 
by ocean steamers; but away from the river 
there is nothing but an almost unknown 
wilderness. 

The Amazon forest is a good type of the 
tropical forest, where plants, encouraged by 
the heat and dampness, grow The tropical 
luxuriantly in the rich soil, forest 
Not only is the rainfall heavy, l. its appear- 
but evaporation is checked by ance 
the dense vegetation, so that the forest reeks 



Fig. 343. — Cutting a road in the dense tropical forest of 
the Amazon Valley. Notice the wavy vines hanging 
from the trees. 


with moisture. Therefore, at night, when 
the temperature falls, such heavy dews col¬ 
lect that the plants are wet, as by a rain. 

In these woods there is an occasional giant tree 
reaching to a height of from one hundred and 
eighty to two hundred feet, and with a circum¬ 
ference of from twenty to forty feet. The lower 
limbs may be as much as a hundred feet from the 











208 


SOUTH AMERICA 


ground. Between these giant trees are smaller ones 
struggling to rise out of the somber shade into the 
sunlight. There are also many shrubs, bushes, 
ferns, and vines, the latter twining about the tree 
trunks or hanging from the lower limbs (Fig. 343). 

The woods present much the same appearance 
throughout the year. There is no time when all the 
trees send forth their leaves and blossoms ; nor is 
there a time when all the leaves change color and 
fall to the ground. Some of the trees blossom 
throughout the year; others have their blossoms at 
regular seasons ; thus flowers and fruits may be seen 
at all times of the year. 

In such a forest there is dense gloom and 
silence, broken now and then by the crash 



liatzel's History of Mankind. 


Fig. 344. — Savage Indians who live in the interior of 
Brazil, far away from the region where white men 
live. 


of a falling tree, or the sorrowful notes of 
birds, or the howling of monkeys, or per¬ 
chance the shrill scream of an animal which 
has fallen a prey to the boa. 

Some of the trees of the forest produce 
fruits and nuts, others valuable timber or 
dyewoods. In fact, the word 
Brazil comes from, the name of 
a dyewood found in the Ama¬ 
zon forests. Another valu¬ 
able plant is the vanilla, whose 
beans are of value in making perfumes and 
flavoring extracts. Many of the Indians 


2. Its products 

(1) Fruits, 
nuts, dye- 
rooods, and 
vanilla 


near the rivers make long journeys into the 
forest to collect the products, both for their 
own use and for shipment down the Amazon. 

The Indians still cultivate the mandioca , 
which was one of their principal foods when 
white men appeared. The root (2) Mandioca 
of this plant is somewhat like and yerba-mate 
a long sweet potato, and a dish of dry meal, 
or farina, made from it is commonly seen on 
Brazilian tables. To these people mandioca 
is, in a measure, what wheat is to those who 
live in temperate climates. It is from this 
plant that tapioca is made. The leaves of a 
tropical plant called yerba-mate , or Paraguay 
tea, are also obtained in the Brazilian for¬ 
est. Brazil produces far more of this than 
Paraguay. 

The natives are also engaged in obtaining 
rubber , a product of great importance be¬ 
cause of its many uses. When 
gathering rubber, the natives U er 
encamp in the forest in lightly built huts 
from which paths lead through the dense 
undergrowth to the rubber trees. Cuts are 
made in the bark, in which the sap gathers 
and runs, then it is collected in bamboo 
dishes. It is then smoked and dried before 
being shipped down the river to Para. 
Find this city on the map (Fig. 333). 

Besides the trees in the forest, there are 
many rubber plantations in which the rubber 
tree is carefully planted and cultivated. 
Rubber ranks second among the exports 
from Brazil, and one of the principal markets 
for it is the United States. What are some 
of its important uses? 

The coffee tree is a native of Abyssinia 
in Africa. It was introduced into Brazil 
long ago, and has proved so Agriculture 
valuable that Brazil now pro- 1. Coffee 
duces more than one half of all the coffee 
used in the world. It is cultivated all the 
way from southern Brazil to the Amazon, 
and there are fully five hundred million 
coffee trees in that country. They grow 
best at altitudes of from fifteen hundred 
to forty-five hundred feet, and are there¬ 
fore very common on the highlands of 






ARGENTINA 


269 


eastern Brazil. Each tree produces from 
thirty to forty pounds of coffee a year. 
When coffee is ripe in May or June, pick¬ 
ing begins. The berries are dried in the 
sun, and hulled by machinery. 

After being sorted in the cities, the coffee 
is shipped in bags. Formerly most of the 
Brazilian coffee left the port of Rio de 
Janeiro; but now more than half of it is 
sent from Santos. Coffee is the prin¬ 
cipal export of Brazil, and 
much of it comes to the 
United States. 

Cotton, sugar, tobacco, 
fruit, and corn are also raised 

2. other agri- extensively on 
cultural prod- the highlands of 
ucts Brazil. Much 

cocoa is cultivated in the 
tropical section, and in the 
extreme south many cattle 
are raised. 

The rocks of the highlands 
produce some valuable min- 
Mining and erals, especially 
manufacturing gold and dia¬ 
monds. Indeed, before dia¬ 
monds were discovered in 
South Africa, Brazil was the 
principal diamond-producing country in 
the world. Both coal and iron are also 
found, though they are not yet extensively 
mined. 

Manufacturing has begun to be impor¬ 
tant in Brazil, which is one of the most 
progressive of the South American coun¬ 
tries. Cotton manufacturing is rapidly in¬ 
creasing, and there are also woolen mills, 
flour mills, and other manufacturing plants, 
chiefly in southern Brazil. Why should 
this be the most progressive part of the 
country ? 

The capital and largest city of the Re¬ 
public is Rio de Janeiro (Fig. 345), a 

city with a population of a 
Principal cities mimon people> and the seC oncl 

in size in South America. It is situated 
upon a fine harbor and is surrounded by an 


excellent farming country dotted with 
coffee plantations. 

Several other Brazilian cities are seaports, 
connected with the interior by short rail¬ 
way lines which bring the coffee and other 
products for shipment. The most impor¬ 
tant are Sao Paulo, Bahia, and Pernam¬ 
buco, the chief port for the export of sugar 
and cotton, and Santos, the seaport of 
Sao Paulo. 



Fig. 345. —A view of part of Rio de Janeiro. 


III. Argentina 

This is the most advanced of South Amer¬ 
ican countries. One reason for this is 
that Argentina extends from Whythemost 
just within the torrid zone to progressive 
the extreme southern end of country in 
South America. Thus the South America 
country is, for the most part, within the 
temperate zone, which has the climate most 
favorable to the development of energetic 
people. 

Besides this, there are many different 
kinds of climate, arid in one part, rainy in 
another; tropical here, warm temperate 
there, and cool temperate elsewhere. Such 
a variety of climate makes it possible to 
raise a great variety of products. 

A third reason for rapid progress is the 









270 


SOUTH AMERICA 


fact that much of the country consists of 
pampas (Fig. 346). These open, treeless 
plains have made it easy for settlers to 
move about and to carry on the indus¬ 


tries of farming and ranching. The ease 
of settlement on these open plains con¬ 
trasts strikingly with the unfavorable con¬ 
ditions in the dense tropical forest of the 
Amazon Valley, but may be compared with 
the conditions on the plains and 
prairies of the United States. 

There are, however, extensive 
forests in the north, and lofty 
mountains in the west, and 
because of these the industries 
of the country are even more 
varied. 

Such favorable conditions 
have served to attract many 
immigrants from Europe, and 
there is, therefore, a larger pro¬ 
portion of pure-blooded whites 
here than in other countries of 
South America. Largely for 
tliis reason the government of 
Argentina is better than that in most South 
American countries. That, alone, has had 
much to do with the progress of Argentina. 

In many parts of Argentina the climate 
Agriculture and soil are favorable to agri- 
l. Farming culture. In the warm north¬ 

ern portion sugar cane, coffee, and tobacco 


are produced; in the more temperate part, 
wherever the rainfall is sufficient, grains 
and alfalfa are raised. There is also much 
fruit raising, especially grapes, from which 

wine and raisins are 
made. 

Wheat is the most 
important agricultural 
product, for the humid 
part of the Argentine 
plains is one of the 
greatest wheat-produ¬ 
cing sections of the 
world. A small por¬ 
tion only of the wheat 
crop is needed for home 
consumption, so much 
of the crop is exported. 

The extreme south is 
too cold for farming, 

but sheep raising is carried „ 

F T ' & . -. 2. Ranching 

on even in ratagonia and on 

the stormy islands beyond the Straits of 

Magellan. The arid, open plains are so 

well adapted to ranching, that there are 


many millions of sheep and cattle in this 
country. 

There is some lumbering and mining in 
the mountainous portion. From the words 
Argentina and Plata , both of Lumbering 
which mean silver, one might and mining 
conclude that this is a great silver-produ- 



Fig. 346. —A view on a cattle ranch in the pampas of Argentina. 



Fig. 347. — Indians living in the cold southern region on the Straits of 

Magellan. 












URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY 


271 


cing region. This is not so, however, for 
those names are due merely to the fact 
that the natives wore silver ornaments. 
Argentina is not important as a mineral- 
producing region, though some gold, silver, 
copper, iron, coal, and petroleum are found. 

In the large cities there are many in¬ 
dustries, largely connected with the raw 
Manufacturing products of the country. The 
and commerce leading kinds are dairying and 
the manufacture of wool, flour, isugar, wine, 
leather, and cotton. A large portion of 
the raw products, however, is sent abroad, 
particularly wool, hides, 
wheat, corn, and meat. 

Machinery and many 
other manufactured 
articles must still be 
imported. 

In a country so pro¬ 
gressive as this, it is 
natural that there should 
be means of ready trans¬ 
portation. The broad 
Parana River, which 
empties into the Plata 
Estuary, forms an im¬ 
portant water way to the interior ; and 
railways cross the well-settled portions of 
the country, connecting all the important 
cities. In fact, there are more railways 
here than in any other Soufch American 
country. In resources, industries, govern¬ 
ment, and education, Argentina, of all the 
South American countries, most closely 
resembles the United States. 

By far the most important city is Buenos 
Aires. With nearly 1,(300,000 inhabitants, 

it is the largest city in South 
Principal citiea Americaj and one of the great 

cities of the world. It is growing rapidly 
and has much manufacturing and commerce. 

Just below Buenos Aires, on the Plata Estuary, is 
the seaport of La Plata ; and upstream, on the 
Parana Paver, is the rapidly growing city of Rosario, 
which is an important railway center as well as a 
river port. In the interior are a number of towns and 
cities, among which Cordoba is one of the largest. 


IV. Uruguay and Paraguay 

Like so much of Argentina, this is a re¬ 
gion of plains, and since a large part of the 

country is well watered, it is TT 

J . Uruguay 

suited to the production of the 
same crops as northern Argentina. But 
there has been much less development in 
Uruguay than in Argentina. One reason 
is that it has been very badly governed, 
for a few men have often controlled the 
army and made and unmade presidents 
almost at will. 



Fig. 318. — A ranch house on a cattle ranch in Uruguay. 

In late years there has been great im¬ 
provement, and agriculture is being ex¬ 
tended, — such crops as wheat and other 
grains, tobacco, and fruits being important 
products. Cattle and sheep, are, however, 
of even greater importance. 

The principal manufactured products 
and exports are those connected with cat¬ 
tle and sheep; namely, dried beef, corned 
beef, ox tongues, hides, tallow, horns, and 
wool. The capital and largest city is the sea¬ 
port, Montevideo, on the Plata Estuary. 

This little country, like Bolivia, is with¬ 
out a seacoast, though it is connected with 
the sea by the Parana River. Paragua y 
It is a region of hills and 
plains,, partly covered with forests, but 
with much pasture land upon which large 
herds of cattle feed. I he climate is hot 
and in many parts dry, with most of the 
hot winds from the north. 








272 


SOUTH AMERICA 


The agricultural products, besides cattle, 
are those of the warm temperate and trop¬ 
ical zones. These include tobacco, rice, 
sugar cane, and oranges. Rubber, dye- 
woods, and valuable timber are obtained 
from the forests. Another product is 
yerba-mate , or Paraguay tea. Although 
not used so extensively as our tea, which 
comes mainly from Asia, the Paraguay tea 
is very popular in South America, where 
its use was learned from the red men. 

The capital, Asuncion, is connected with 
Argentina, Uruguay, and the sea coast by 
rail. 

V. The Guianas and Venezuela 

North of Brazil are three small countries, 
the only portions of the South American 

The Guianas continent now under control 
of European nations. They 
belong to Great Britain, Holland, and 
France, respectively, and are known as 
British Guiana. Butch Guiana or Surinam , 
and French Guiana. Find the capital of 
each. 

In these countries a large part of the surface is 
still a forest wilderness, inhabited chiefly by In¬ 
dians. This tropical forest, like that of the Amazon, 
which it closely resembles, supplies rubber and valu¬ 
able timber; but its resources are only slightly de¬ 
veloped. Near the coast there is a strip of cultivated 
land on which sugar cane, bananas, cotton, and a 
few other products are raised. Of late, especially in 
Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to the pro¬ 
duction of cocoa and coffee. Some gold is found in 
each of the Guianas. The Guianas have but one 
short railway, and in most sections there are almost 
no roads. There are scarcely any exports except 
sugar, molasses, and rum — all made from sugar 
cane. 

This name, which means “little Venice,” 
Venezuela was given in 1499 because the 
l. Character of explorers found an Indian vil- 
country, and lage built on piles, or posts, in 
products the wa ^ er along the shore of 

Lake Maracaibo. 

Venezuela includes one of the spurs of 
the Andes, and also a portion of the Guiana 
highland; but a large part of the country is 


occupied by the broad plains of the Orinoco 
Valley. Some of these plains, the treeless 
llanos (p. 249), are the seat of extensive 
cattle raising, as is the case on the pampas 
of Argentina. There is some farming. 
Hardy crops, like potatoes, beans, and bar¬ 
ley, are raised even at altitudes of eight 
thousand feet; but below five thousand feet 
are found such semitropical arid tropical 
products as sugar cane, bananas, cocoa, 
and coffee. Coffee is the chief export; in 
fact, Venezuela is one of the leading coffee- 
producing sections of South America. 

In parts of Venezuela there are vast for¬ 
ests which produce valuable dyewoods and 
rubber; and among the mountains are rich 
mineral deposits, especially gold. 

The capital, Caracas, five or six miles 
from the sea, is situated upon g Chiefcity 
a plateau, over three thousand 
feet above sea level. It is connected with 
its seaports by a short railway. 

In 1812 Caracas was visited by one of the most 
terrible earthquakes ever recorded. It being Ascen¬ 
sion Day, a great part of the population, which is 
Catholic, was at church. The first shock caused 
the bell to toll; but after all danger was thought to 
be past, there came a terrible noise from under¬ 
ground, resembling the rolling of thunder, though 
louder and longer. Then followed a shaking of the 
earth, so tremendous that churches and houses were 
overthrown, and the inhabitants were buried beneath 
their ruins. On that day fully twelve thousand per¬ 
sons perished. 

VI. Tropical Andean Countries 

These countries — Colombia, Ecuador, 
Peru, and Bolivia — are all crossed by the 
lofty Andes, and are therefore Resemblances 
very mountainous. Each of to one another 
them extends eastward, beyond l- in surface 
the mountains, to the plains of the upper 
Amazon and Orinoco valleys. The head¬ 
waters of the Amazon and its tributaries, 
in the region of the equator, have never 
been fully explored, and for that reason the 
exact boundaries of these countries of this 
section have been in dispute. 



TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 


273 



In such a mountainous country, there is, 
of course, great variety of climate. Tropi- 

2 . in variety of Gal heat pievails throughout 
climate and of the lowlands (Fig. 349); but 
farm products G n the mountain slopes there 
are temperate and even frigid climates. 

The farm products vary accordingly. Up to an 
elevation of three thousand to four thousand feet, 
bananas, sugar cane, cocoa, and other plants of hot 
climates flourish. Above this, to an 
elevation of six or seven thousand 
feet, tobacco, corn, and coffee are 
cultivated. From this height up to 
about ten thousand feet, wheat and 
our Northern vegetables and fruits 
do well; but above ten thousand 
feet the bleak mountain peaks are 
too cold for fanning. 

There is a great difference in the 
rainfall, as well as in temperature. 

Near the equator the rainfall is 
heavy; but in southern Peru, west 
of the mountains (p. 232), the cli¬ 
mate is arid. On this account the 
tropical forest gradually dwindles 
toward the south, being replaced 
first by arid plains, and then by 
deserts. 

The fact that this section is 
so mountainous explains its 

3. in abundance importance as a 
of minerals mineral region. 

Gold and silver ores, and 
other minerals as well, are 
found from the northern to 
the southern limit of the 
Andes, and this is one of the 
great mineral-producing re¬ 
gions of the world. 

None of the capitals of the Andean coun¬ 
tries are on the coast, and several are in the 

4. in location interior at a considerable ele- 
of chief cities vation above sea level. Find 
examples. In choosing such sites the inhab¬ 
itants have had the example set them both 
by their Spanish ancestors and by the In¬ 
cas ; for Cuzco, the capital of the Incas, and 
Madrid, the Spanish capital, are both at a 
considerable elevation above sea level, and 
many miles from the coast. The principal 
objects in the selection of such sites were 


to be near the mines, to secure a cooler and 
more healthful climate, and to obtain pro¬ 
tection from attack by sea. Doubtless the 
absence of good harbors (p. 262) was an¬ 
other reason why these capitals were not 
located on the coast. 

It has been very difficult to carry on a 
republican government in these 
countries, where a large part of 5 Government 


Fig. 349. — Tropical foliage on the lowlands of Ecuador near the coast. 


the population can neither read nor write, 
and where there are so many Indians and 
half-breeds. In each of them ambitious lead¬ 
ers, usually generals in the arniy, have again 
and again overturned the government. This 
has greatly interfered with the development 
of industry and commerce; for neither life 
nor property has been safe. It has also pre¬ 
vented settlers from coming. Of late, how¬ 
ever, there has been great improvement. 

Colombia, named after Columbus, has 
seacoast on both oceans. The western part 





274 


SOUTH AMERICA 



Fig. 350 — A village in Panama. 


is very 
Andean 

Colombia 


mountainous, for several of the 
ranges terminate there. Much 
mineral is found here, gold 
and silver being most impor¬ 
tant, though emeralds of excellent grade 
are also obtained. 

In the eastern portion, on the other hand, 


are treeless llanos on which 
large numbers of cattle are 
raised, as in Venezuela. 
Coffee is the principal farm 
product and the chief export; 
but sugar cane, tobacco, and 
cocoa are also produced. On 
the mountain slopes the grains, 
fruits, and vegetables of tem¬ 
perate climates are grown. 

Bogota, the capital and 
largest city, is situated far in 
the interior, at an elevation of 
about a mile and a half above 
sea level. It has an agree¬ 
able climate, even though 
within the tropical zone. 

The small republic of Panama was for¬ 
merly a part of Colombia, but it revolted 

and became an independent 

1 Panama 

country a lew years ago. 

What have you learned about it (p. 196) ? 

What can you tell about the Panama Canal 

zone (p. 170) ? 



Fig. 351. A house in Ecuador raised above the grouud because of the dampness. 






TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 


275 


Why should Ecuador, the Spanish word 
for equator , be given to this country? In 
the Andes of Ecuador there are many vol- 
Ecuador canoes, including Cotopaxi, the 

loftiest active volcano in the 
world, and Chimborazo, which is still higher, 
though no longer active. Describe the cli¬ 
mate (p. 232). 

The principal occupations are farming 
and cattle raising. The chief farm prod¬ 
ucts are wheat and barley on the high¬ 
lands, and coffee, sugar cane, and cocoa 
on the lowlands. Cocoa is the most im¬ 
portant product of Ecuador, and fully one 
sixth of the world supply comes from here. 

The cocoa tree, which grows in protected locali¬ 
ties sheltered by the forest trees from the wind and 
sun, has small pink and yellow blossoms which 
spring directly from the main trunk and branches. 
Its leaves are always green and it blossoms through¬ 
out the year. From each blossom there develops a 
golden-colored pod, several inches in length, inclos¬ 
ing a number of seeds, or beans, which are about the 
size of a large almond. After being washed, dried, 
and roasted, the beans are ready to be made into 
cocoa and chocolate. What are some of their uses ? 
By what routes might they be shipped from Guaya¬ 
quil to New York? 

Another product of Ecuador, and of some other 
South American countries, is sarsaparilla. The rub¬ 
ber industry is also well developed. 

There is an almost total absence of roads 
in this country, making the transportation 
of heavy machinery very difficult. This 
fact interferes greatly with mining among 
the mountains. Therefore, although there 
are known to be many minerals, there is 
little mining except of the richest gold de¬ 
posits. There is almost no manufacturing 
in the country. 

Guayaquil, the seaport and the western¬ 
most of the large cities of South America, 
is first in size. It is in W. Long. 80°. Does 
it lie east or west of Washington, D.C. ? 
Quito, the capital and the second city in 
size, is situated among the mountains of the 
interior at an elevation of about nine thou¬ 
sand feet. 

There is abundant rainfall in northern 
Peru and on the eastern side of the Andes; 


but in southern Peru the climate is arid 
and there are deserts (Fig. 296). Recall the 
cause of this arid climate Peru 
(p. 232). So little rain falls l. Climate 
in southwestern Peru that in some parts, 
even close by the sea, there is an average 
of but one shower in seven years. 

Peru was one of the most valuable sources 
of gold and silver for the 
Spanish conquerors. The 2 Mlnlng 
Incas, who dwelt there, had collected gold 
for ornaments, 
a n d this t h e 
Spaniards seized. 

Then, opening 
m i n e s, they 
forced the In¬ 
dians to work in 
them as slaves. 

Since that time 
vast quantities of 
gold and silver 
have been ob¬ 
tained in this 
country ; and 
valuable deposits 
of coal, petro¬ 
leum, and copper- 
have also been 
found. 

There is much 
agriculture in 
Peru, the prin¬ 
cipal crops being 
corn, wheat, and 
potatoes among 
the mountains, and sugar cane, cotton, 

tobacco, cocoa, and coffee in 
, 11 , 3. Agriculture 

the lower and warmer sec¬ 
tions. Even in the desert portion there is 
some farming by irrigation, as in southern 
California. Large numbers of sheep and 
cattle are raised, and also the llama and 
alpaca for their wool (Fig. 353). 

An unusual product is coca, from which 
cocaine is made; and another is cinchona , 
or Peruvian bark , from which quinine is 
made. These plants were cultivated by 







276 


SOUTH AMERICA 




while the coast is seldom 
visited by storms, this slight 
protection is sufficient. 

Akequipa, at an elevation of 
seven thousand feet, is separated 
from the sea by sixty miles of 
desert. Cuzco is on an interior 
table-land, at an elevation of over 
eleven thousand feet. The ruins of 
the Inca citadels and “palaces” are 
still to be seen, and many pure- 
blooded and half-breed Incas still 
dwell in and near this ancient 
capital. 


5. Chief cities 


Lima, the capital (Fig. 354), 
founded by the Spanish con¬ 
querors in 1535, 
is situated at the 
base of the Andes. Callao, 
the seaport of Lima, is about 
seven miles from the capital. 
Its harbor is but little more 
than an open roadstead partly 
protected by an island on the 
southwest side. However, 
since the winds and ocean 
swells are from the south , 


Fig. 354. — A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. 


Fig. 353.—The South American llama. 


the Incas before the coming of the 
Spaniards. 

There is some manufacturing in Peru, especially 
of sugar and cotton goods. One great difficulty, 
however, has been that of transpor- 
in a^ndtrans' 11 " Nation. The rugged Andes extend 
portation ^ the entire length of the country, 
separating the Pacific coast from the 
bi’oad, forest-covered plains of eastern Peru. To 
overcome this difficulty, the Peruvians have built 
several railways, one of which deserves special men¬ 
tion. Beginning at Callao this line passes through 
Lima; then it climbs the mountains, crossing deep 
gorges, by means of high trestles, winding about on 
the very edge of precipices, tunneling through the 
mountain rock, and finally crossing 
the western range of the Andes at 
an elevation of over fifteen thousand 
feet. 


This country, named after 
General Bolivar, the great 
South American Bolivia 
leader in the re¬ 
volt against Spain, was robbed 
of its seacoast by Chile. Its surface is 
mountainous, with broad and very high 
plateaus between the mountain ranges. 
In one of these valleys lies Lake Titicaca 
(Fig. 355), partly in Peru and partly in 
Bolivia. This lake, the greatest in South 
America, is about a third the size of Lake 
Erie. It is the most elevated great lake in 
the world, lying over twelve thousand feet 
above the sea. 

The Incas occupied this region also, and 
mined much gold. Besides gold, the Span¬ 
ish discovered veins of copper, tin, and sil- 

















TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 


277 


ver, so that mining lias been 
one of the most important in¬ 
dustries of the country. It is 
said that over three billion 
dollars’ worth of silver has 
been mined in Bolivia since 
the Spaniards first visited the 
country. 



Fig. 355. — Indians in tlieir grass boats on Lake Titicaca. 


Both the mining and the work of 
obtaining the metals from the ore are 
done very crudely. For example, 
instead of using costly machines for 
crushing the ore, as in the United 
States, one method is to roll bowlders 
around on the ore. Since there are 
very few railways, goods are carried 
for the most part by trains of pack 
mules, donkeys, alpacas, or llamas 
(Fig. 337). The llama here, as in 
Peru, is of great value to the in¬ 
habitants, not merely as a beast of 
burden, but also as a source of wool 
for clothing. 

Like eastern Peru and the Amazon Valley of 
Brazil, much of eastern Bolivia is an almost unknown 


forest wilderness. In the mountain valleys, how¬ 
ever, there are settlements where agriculture is 












278 


SOUTH AMERICA 


carried on, with products similar to those of leiu. 
Name them. Most of these are consumed at home, 
though some coffee is exported. 

A railway line connects western Bolivia with the 
sea; but there is great need of others. Another 
need is the improvement of the water ways to 
permit river transportation to the Atlantic. 1 hrough 
what rivers could boats pass to the sea l 

Find the capital of Bolivia. La Faz (tig. 350), 
the largest city, has more than three times as many 
inhabitants as the capital. 

VII. Chile 

The eastern boundary of Chile is the 
divide between the Atlantic and Pacific 
Surface drainage ; and since this runs 

features along the Andes, the country 

is very mountainous, and narrow in an east 


reaches far into the bleak south temperate 
zone ; and on the mountain slopes there is 
every climate, from torrid to frigid. Ihe 
very name, Chile, is derived from an Indian 
word for snow. 

There is also great difference in rainfall ; 
for northern Chile is arid, and in some por¬ 
tions an absolute desert ; while central and 
southern Chile reach into the rainy belt of 
prevailing westerlies (p. 232). The best- 
developed section of the country lies in the 
middle part, between the hot, arid north 
and the bleak, rainy south. 

There is much mineral wealth, including 
gold, silver, coal, and copper. 

Of these copper is one of Minmg 



Fig. 357. — The shipping in Valparaiso harbor. 


and west direction. Measure its length ; 
also its width. Except in the south, the 
coast line is regular, like that of the rest of 
South America. 

The climate varies more than that of any 
other South American country. 
The northern part is within 
the torrid zone, while the southern end 


Climate 


the most valuable minerals, and. Chile, 
like the United States, is one of the 
great copper-producing countries of the 
world. Even more important than the 
copper are the beds of nitrate of soda, 
which yield many million dollars’ worth 
of nitrate every year. This substance is 
one of the chief exports. 
















ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT 


279 


The nitrate beds lie in the midst of the Desert of 
Atacama, in which rain seldom falls. The sub¬ 
stance occurs in layers from a few inches to one or two 
feet in thickness, over an area thirty or forty miles in 
breadth. After being dug out, the pure nitrate is 
dissolved and separated from its impurities, and 
then sold. Its chief use is as a fertilizer, for which 
purpose large quantities are shipped from the port 
of Iquique. 


Agriculture is extensively carried on in 
Chile, especially in the rainy middle por- 

Agriculture tion ’ aS in man y P arts of the 
United States. The principal 

crops are the various grains, fruits, and 
vegetables. More wheat and barley are 
produced than are needed at home, so that 
Chile helps to supply other nations with 
these grains. Large herds of cattle are 
reared ; and sheep raising is one of the 
chief industries in southern Chile. Hides, 
leather, and wool are exported. 

There is more manufacturing than in 
most South American countries, the princi- 

Manufacturing P al killds bein g flour millin g- 
cheese making, tanning, and 

shoemaking. Manufacturing is rapidly 

increasing, but, as in other South American 

countries, it is still necessary to import from 

Europe and the United States much of the 

machinery and other manufactured articles 

used. 

Chile is one of the most progressive 
nations in South America. Its government 
Progress of is good, and its industries are 
the country well developed. This progress 
is doubtless in large part due to the tem¬ 
perate climate, which requires energy on 
the part of its inhabitants, and invites set¬ 
tlers from the temperate climate of Europe. 
It is interesting to note that the two most 


advanced nations of South America lie side 
by side in the temperate zone, while the 
next most progressive country, Brazil, is 
partly in that zone. 

The principal cities of Chile are San¬ 
tiago, the capital and largest city, situated 
, ... inland, and Valparaiso, its 
seaport (big. 357). The har¬ 
bor of Valparaiso, like that of Callao 


(p. 270), is open to the north; but the 
wind seldom blows from that quarter. 


VIII. Islands near the Continent 


Just off the coast of Venezuela, opposite the 
mouth of the Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad , 
a British possession. This island is n 
especially noted for its pitch lake, on the north 
from which asphaltum is obtained 
for use in making asphalt pavements. The as- 
phaltum oozes slowly from the ground; and, as it is 
dug out, more takes its place, showing that there is 
a very large supply beneath the surface. 

Just east of the southern tip of South America 
are the Falkland Islands, which belong to Great 
Britain. Still farther east are the 
islands of South Georgia , also British. n ^ e south- 
They are cold, bleak lands, with no 
permanent inhabitants. Yet they are no nearer the 
south frigid zone than parts of Great Britain are to 
the north frigid zone. This difference in climate is 
due to the fact that Great Britain is affected by a 
warm ocean current, while South Georgia is swept 
by cold currents from the Antarctic. 

West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is 
the island of Juan Fernandez. This is the island 
where Selkirk was wrecked, and by ~ , 

some is thought to be the island n 6 Wes 
home of Robinson Crusoe. It seems quite certain, 
however, that Defoe described Tobago, just north of 
Trinidad, instead of Juan Fernandez. 

The Galapagos Islands, about six hundred miles 
west of Ecuador, on the equator, are a group of 
small volcanic islands owned by Ecuador. They 
are too far from the continent to show on our map 
(see Fig. 3). 

1. What striking resemblances in surface features 
are there between North and South America? 

2. What differences? 3. Show how _ . 

Review 

the temperature varies from place to „ ,. 

place. 4. The rainfall. 5. Describe < J uest " ms 
the plant and animal life. 6. What can you tell about 
the native inhabitants ? 7. The Spaniards and recent 
immigrants ? 8. What can you tell about the govern¬ 

ment? 9. Compare Brazil with the United States in 
area. 10. What about its climate and drainage? 
11. Navigation on its rivers ? 12. Describe the tropical 
forest. 13. What valuable products are obtained 
there ? 14. What are the agricultural products of 
Brazil? 15. What is the condition of mining? Of 
manufacturing? 10. Name and locate the principal 
cities. 17. Give some reasons why Argentina is 
the most progressive country of South America. 
18. What about its agriculture? 19. Lumbering and 
mining? 20. Manufacturing and commerce? 
21. Name and locate its principal cities. 22. Give one 



280 


SOUTH AMERICA 


reason for the slower development of Uruguay. 
23. What are its products? 24. Name and locate 
its chief city. 25. What kind of country is Paraguay? 
Tell about its products and chief city. 20. Name 
the Guianas. What about their products and com¬ 
merce ? 27. What are the surface features of Vene¬ 
zuela? 28. What are its products ? 29. Locate the 
chief city. 30. How do the tropical Andean coun¬ 
tries resemble one another in surface features? 
31. In variety of climate and of farm products? 32. In 
abundance of minerals ? 33. In location of principal 
cities? 34. In character of their government? 
35. What about the surface features and the products 
of Colombia? 30. What is its leading city? 37. De¬ 
scribe the surface and climate of Ecuador. 
38. What are its agricultural products? 39. What 
about mining and manufacturing? 40. Name and 
locate the principal cities of Ecuador. 41. What 
climate has Peru? 42. What about mining there? 
43. Agriculture? 44. Manufacturing and transpor¬ 
tation? 45. Name and locate its chief cities. 
46. Describe the surface features of Bolivia. 47. Tell 
about mining in that country. 48. Agriculture. 
49. Commerce and chief cities. 50. Describe the 
surface of Chile. 51. The climate. 52. What about 
mining there ? 53. Agriculture ? 54. Manufactur¬ 
ing? 55. Why has Chile made such progress? 
56. Locate the chief cities. 57. Name, locate, and tell 
the principal facts about the islands near South 
America. 

1. Which of the two Americas has the advantage 
in regard to latitude? Show how. 2. Tell about the 
_ . effects of the trade winds in each 

wittNoX COnti " C " t ( Fi «- 3 ' 0f 

America prevailing westerlies (Figs. 297 and 

299). 4. Locate the arid sections 
in each continent, and give the reasons for the lack 
of rain (Figs. 296, 297). 5. Point out the rainiest 
section in each, and state the causes. 6. Which 


of the two continents has the better position for 
world commerce? Why? 7. Into what ocean do the 
principal rivers of South America flow? Of North 
America? 8. What can you say about the regularity 
of the coast of the two continents? Which has the 
advantage in this respect? How? 9. Locate the 
five principal coast cities of South America; of 
North America. State the main advantages of the 
location in each case. 10. What about the number 
of lakes in each continent and their value for com¬ 
merce? 11. What about the number of large cities 
in the interior of each continent ? 12. Compare both 
Brazil and Argentina with the United States in area; 
in population. 13. Compare Chile with Texas in 
these two respects. 14. Make a list of the important 
farm products common to South America and the 
United States. 15. Name some products that are 
extensively raised in one and not in the other. 
16. Which parts of each continent are especially 
noted for cotton? Coffee? Wheat? Cattle and 
sheep? Copper? Precious metals? 17. What is 
the prevailing kind of government in North and in 
South America ? What sections have adifferent kind 
of government? 

1. Give several reasons why South America has 
been much less rapidly settled than North America. 
2. How does the Spaniards’treatment .. 

of the Incas compare with their treat- u 2£ es lons 
ment of the North American Indians? 3. Find out 
some of the, ways in which coffee is often adulterated. 

4. Make a drawing of South America; a sand model. 

5. If you were expecting to emigrate there, in what 

country would you prefer to settle? Why? 6. What 
products of South America are you probably seeing 
and using from week to week ? 7. Is Brazil likely to 
rival the United States in importance in the future? 
Why ? 8. Is it an advantage or disadvantage for 

South America that it is divided into so many more 
countries than North America? Why? 




PART IV. EUROPE 


1. On the map (Fig. 358) trace the boundary be¬ 
tween Europe and Asia. 2. What peninsulas are 
Map Study there? 3. What countries are wholly 
or partly on peninsulas ? 4. How 

does Russia compare in area with the other countries 
of Europe? With the United States? (See Appen¬ 
dix, p. 453.) 5. Where are the principal moun¬ 
tains? 6. Name and locate the principal rivers. 
7. The 40th parallel of latitude crosses what coun¬ 
tries of Europe? Through or near what cities in 
the United States does it pass? 


I. General Facts 

The continent of Europe was named when 
only the southern part of it was known. 
Why called a As people learned more about 
continent it, they found that Europe was 
connected with Asia, being, in fact, a great 
peninsula extending westward. We now 
know that Europe and Asia together really 
form a single continent, which is called 
Eurasia. But since Europe has been long 
considered a separate continent, and has 
been so important as the home of the civilized 
races, it is still the custom to class it as a 
continent. 

As in the case of North America, the 
growth of the continent of Europe has re- 
Story of the quired millions of years. Far 
continent back in time mountains ap- 
l. Formation of peared above the sea in several 
mountains in the places, as in the northwestern 
northwest portion of the continent. Al¬ 
though greatly worn away, these mountains 
may still be seen in Finland, Scandinavia, 
and Scotland (Figs. 359 and 360), as well 
as in Germany, Belgium, and other sections. 
They resemble the mountains of New Eng¬ 
land and eastern Canada. 

Other mountain ranges were formed in 
southern Europe ; but, like those of west- 


285 


ern America, they are younger and are 
far less worn away than the older moun¬ 
tains mentioned. Therefore 2 . Later moun- 
the Pyrenees (Fig. 391), Alps tain ranges, and 
(Fig. 430), and Caucasus (Fig. their direction 

361) mountains are still of great height. 
Find each on Figure 359. Besides the 
mountains named, there is a long, low 
chain, known as the Urals , which extends 
north and south along the eastern boundary 
of Europe. Other highlands are shown on 
Figure 360. Where are they mainly 
situated ? 

The highest mountains in Europe are in 
the south, and they extend in various direc¬ 
tions, though mainly east and west. How 
does this arrangement promise to affect the 
climate ? Next to the Caucasus (Fig. 361), 
the loftiest of all are the Alps (Figs. 
430, 434). The rains and snows of the 
Alps find their way to the sea through sev¬ 
eral of the large rivers of Europe. What 
are the names of the largest (Fig. 359)? 
Headwaters of four of them — the Bo, 
Rhone, Rhine, and Danube—are within 
forty miles of one another in the Alps. 

Europe owes much of its very irregular 
outline to the fact that the mountains are 
not continuous, and consist of chains ex¬ 
tending in various directions. How does 
Europe compare with North America in 
this respect? With South America? 

Between the mountains of the north¬ 
west, the east, and the south there is an ex¬ 
tensive lowland (Fig. 360). 3 Xhelow 
A part of this has been lowered plain between 
beneath the sea by the sinking these mountains 
of the land, thus forming the shallow Baltic 
Sea. This plain extends from southern 
England, through Belgium and Holland, 





t>Ol°A 


Dnieper 


Cattegat 




■t? 

■Jsfp 

A.4rV 










































wJ 

8 

d 

&H 





















































I "af 4 


FIG. 





















GENERAL FACTS 


285 


or the “Low Countries,” entirely across 
Germany (Fig. 420) and Russia (Fig. 360). 
It broadens 
toward the 
east until it 
includes al¬ 
most all of 
Russia. Esti¬ 
mate its length 
from east to 
west. About 
two thirds of 
Europe is in¬ 
cluded in this 
plain. 

While the 
mountains and 
plains were be¬ 
ing made, coal 
beds were also 

4. Formation Of forming, as was the case in 
coal beds; also America during the Coal 
kinds of coal Period. State once more how 
coal was formed (p. 4). Figure 362 


found ? Most of the coal is bituminous, 
though there is some anthracite. In a 



Fig. 361. — A view over the crests of the lofty snow-covered Caucasus Mountains. The valley 

in the front is filled with clouds. 


number of sections lignite , or brown coal, 
is mined; and peat is also dug for fuel in 
western Europe. 

At the same period that eastern North 
America was invaded by a 
great ice sheet 5 . The great 
from the north, Ice A s e 
snow gathered on the high¬ 
lands of northwestern Europe 
and spread outward in all 
directions. Figure 363 
shows the extent of the Euro¬ 
pean ice sheet. It made the 
same changes in Europe as 
in our country. State what 
these changes were (p. 13). 

The irregular coast of 
northwestern Europe, like 

that of north- . . , 

6 . Character of 

eastern rs ortli the coast line, 

America, is due and advantages 
it gives 



shows the parts of Europe in which coal 
beds occur. In what countries are they 


to the sinking 
of the land. The Baltic Sea 
and its gulfs are old land 
valleys, sunk beneath the 
sea; and the hills of this 
sunken land form either islands, peninsulas, 
or shallow banks where food fish abound. 

















286 


EUROPE 


Daring the growth of the mountains of 
southern Europe, the rising and sinking of 
small areas of land has made many penin¬ 
sulas, with bays, gulfs, islands, and seas be¬ 
tween. The Mediterranean Sea occupies a 
basin, thousands of feet in depth, formed 
by the sinking of this part of the earth’s 
crust. Some of the islands in the Medi- 


boundary of western United States, it 
passes entirely south of England, crosses 
France near Paris, and ex- climate 
tends through southern Ger- i. The lati- 
m any and Russia. From this tude of Europe 
it is seen that by far the larger part of 
Europe lies farther north than the United 
States, and due east of Canada. Petro- 



HammerfSt 


V ll.efsingfors 

mmm 

i S f o e k uuj 

\ \ U< \ F.STHON r a\l 


ESTHONIAJ 


LITHUANIA] 


<annel 


SFovXkiaTVa .1 . 

BudafSt-V* 

V.V it I'm NI a 

?”* r i 


. Soda 

BULGARIA^ 


MEBfTERRAXEAX Vs/iA 


Teheran • 


ALBANI. 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


Fig. 363. — The ice sheet of Europe. 


terranean Sea were partly or wholly built 
up by volcanic action. 

As a result of all these movements of the 
land, Europe has the most irregular coast 
of all the continents. Name the larger 
peninsulas, gulfs, and seas that border 
Europe. How about the number of fine 
harbors ? Show, by examples, how such an 
irregular coast is of advantage in allowing 
vessels to sail far into the interior of the 
continent. 

Trace the 50th parallel of latitude on a 
globe or map of the world. Notice that 
while the 49th parallel forms the northern 


grad is in the same latitude as northern 
Labrador; and the tips of the peninsulas of 
southern Europe reach no farther south 
than the southern boundary of Virginia. 

In spite of this latitude, and of the fact 
that Europe is much less than half the size 
of North America, that conti- 2. The popuia- 
nent supports over three times tion and crops 
as many inhabitants as our there 
own, or over four hundred million persons. 

It is true that, in the Far North, near the 
Arctic Ocean, the climate is bleak, and there 
are barren, frozen tundras. But south of 
this is a belt of fir, spruce, pine, and other 































GENERA L FACTS 


287 


trees. Within the forest belt, and south of 
it, the climate permits the growth of the 
grains and fruits that flourish in southern 
Canada and northern United States. Far¬ 
ther south, in southern Europe, in the 
latitude of central United States, such semi- 
tropical fruits as oranges, lemons, olives, 


possible for crops to be raised nearer the 
pole in Europe than in any other part of the 
globe. Without such winds, much of that 
densely populated continent (Fig. 364) 
would be a barren waste, like Labrador. 

In North America, where high mountains 
extend north and south along the entire 



ICELAND 


EUROPE 


# Jr/ f 

pifSir | 
mw 1 
* WML \ 


/ Density of Population 

j- J : 1 Under 2 inhabitants per sq. mile 

2 to 64 it it ii 

mU 64 tu 256 it “ “ 

250 to 612 it it it 

■ShH Over 512 tt ta i 

Cities with over 500,000 
inhabitants are shown *° VI 


. / TV/ A// // '//■ // ■ ^v/- 

bNfllP 

. ■ A 


1 NORTH SEA 

planchcster 


HambuS^ 


[Birming ham 

jg^AmstfcrJai 


BRITISH 

ISLES 


[Paris] 


'/•/'/'A 

s' 


^tionnai 


.Madrid 


Barcelona 


Constantinople 


Naplesw^ 


WILLIAMS ENGRAV’NS CO., N.Y. 


Fig. 364. — What reasons can you suggest for the fact that certain parts, like central Spain, northern Russia, and Scan¬ 
dinavia, and the country between the Black and Caspian seas, are not densely populated ? 


and figs are cultivated. That is to say, 
the products of the greater part of Europe 
are such as grow several hundred miles far¬ 
ther south in eastern North America. 

The prevailing westerlies are felt in 
northern Europe as well as in the United 
States (p. 232). Blowing from 
of these surpris- across the warm ocean waters 
ing facts (p. 244), they bring an enor- 

(1) The prevail- mous amount of heat to the 
mg west winds j am p j t i s these west winds, 

more than any other thing, that make it 


western side of the continent, the warm, 
damp air soon loses its moisture as it 
moves eastward (p. 231). In 
Europe, on the other hand, 
where the higher ranges ex¬ 
tend nearly east and west, the 
mountains interfere much less 
with the movement of vapor to the interior. 
For that reason the west winds give up 
their moisture little by little, and over a 
wide area. This is the chief reason why 
there is no arid land in the belt of wester- 


(2) The absence 
of north and 
south mountain 
ranges in the 
west 



































































































288 


EUROPE 


Fig. 365. — Rainfall map of Europe. 

winter temperature (Figs. 317 and 318) and the rain¬ 
fall (Fig. 365) of these two sections. 

The numerous inland seas are another important 
cause of the mild climate of parts of Europe. Draw 
an outline map of the continent, 
e in an c locating these seas. How does the 

iieaS ,, t, . 

Mediterranean compare in length 
with Lake Superior ? It will be remembered that 
our Great Lakes produce a distinct influence on the 
climate of the neighboring land, reducing the heat of 
summer and the cold of winter (p. 106). It is partly 
because of this influence that southern Italy, Greece, 
France, and Spain have such an equable and semi- 
tropical climate. How must these seas affect the 
rainfall? 

The cyclonic storms which pass over eastern 
North America often cross the ocean and continue 
across Europe (p. 238), causing variable winds, as 


The people of Europe have 
never been bound closely to¬ 
gether as one great nation. Reasons for the 
One of the reasons for this is many countries 
the fact that so many parts of the continent 
are separated from all others. Spain, for 
example, is not only a peninsula, but it 
is separated from France by lofty moun¬ 
tains. The British Isles are entirely cut 
off by water ; Scandinavia nearly so ; and 
Italy is bounded on the north by the Alps, 
and on all other sides by water. 

It is natural that people living in such 
positions should not feel a common interest 
with those who are so separated from them. 
Thus many different customs, beliefs, and 
languages have arisen; and because of these 



lies, from western Ireland to eastern Russia. 
Another reason is that, in this cool north¬ 
ern climate, the soil loses little of its water 
by evaporation. 

The effect of the ocean winds is naturally greatest 
near the coast, as in western North America. There¬ 
fore, England has a mild, rainy climate; but the 
farther east one goes, the less the influence of the 
ocean is felt. Thus, in eastern Russia there are 
great extremes of heat and cold, and there is danger 
of serious droughts. Compare the summer and 


in eastern United States and Canada. You will 
recall that the east winds of the cyclonic storms 
bring much rain to eastern United 
States (p. 236). They cannot do 
this in eastern Europe, because 
there is no great ocean near at 
hand to supply the vapor. There¬ 
fore the rainfall here is light. 


Why cyclonic 
storms bring 
little rain to 
eastern Europe 


Southern Europe, like southern Califor¬ 
nia, is not reached by the westerlies in 
summer, for it then lies within why sou them 
the belt of the Europe has a 
horse latitudes, dry, mild 
This accounts for climate 
the fact that southern Spain, 
Italy, and Greece receive very 
little rain in summer. Examine 
Figure 365 to see where the 
rainfall in Europe is light. 


The east-west direction of the lofty 
mountains exerts a great influence on 
the climate of the countries that lie to 
the north and south of them. Rising 
like great walls, these mountains pre¬ 
vent south winds from bearing north¬ 
ward the heat of the Mediterranean 
basin; and they also interfere with the 
passage of cold north winds. Northern 
Florida, much farther south than south¬ 
ern Europe, is sometimes visited by cold 
waves and frosts; but such winds can¬ 
not reach portions of southern Europe 
that are protected by the mountains. 


30 


Scale of Rainfall 
| | Under 10 inchei 

I:•::'| 10 to 20 inches 
£H§§20 to 40 inches 
HqH Over 40 inches 
/ 





















THE BRITISH ISLES 


289 


differences there are many more nations in 
Europe than in North America. Count 
them (Fig. 358). 


Many jealousies and disputes have arisen between 
the different nations. These have often led to war, 
and the nations have suffered many changes. 
Notice how irregular some of the boundary lines are. 
Those of Germany, for example, have been agreed 
upon only after the loss of tens of thousands of 
human lives in war. What changes have recently 
taken place in the boundaries of Germany? Of 
other countries of Europe ? 


1. Why is Europe classed as a continent? 2. In 
the growth of the continent, tell about the formation 

.. . of mountains in the northwest. 

K 6 Y 16 W 

.. 3. Where else are mountains found ? 

yues ions What do you know about them? 

4. Describe the large plain. 5. Where are the coal 
beds? What kinds are found? 6. Locate the 
boundaries of the ice sheet (Fig. 363). What are 
some of its effects? 7. Explain the irregular coast 
line, and state some of its advantages. 8. What is 
the latitude of Europe? 9. What about the popu¬ 
lation, and the farm products? 10. How is the 
climate influenced by the prevailing westerlies? 
11. By the absence of north and south mountain 
ranges in the west? 12. By the inland seas? 
13. Why do not the cyclonic storms supply abundant 
rains in eastern Europe ? 14. Why is the climate 
of southern Europe dry and mild? 15. Give some 
reasons for so many countries in Europe. Why are 
the boundary lines often irregular? 


Comparisons 
with North 
America 


1. Compare Europe with North America in re¬ 
gard to highlands. 2. Lowlands. 3. Rivers. 4. Dis¬ 
tribution of coal beds (Fig. 268). 
5. Extent of ice covering. 6. Char¬ 
acter of coast line. 7. Latitude. 
8. Population. 9. In what respects 
are the two continents alike in climate ? 10. In 

what respects unlike in climate? 11. Compare the 
number of degrees of longitude in Europe 'with 
the number in North America. 12. Where are the 
most densely settled parts in each continent? Why 
this difference ? 


1. What results might follow if the mountains of 
Europe extended north and south near the western 

. coast? 2. Mention some of the re- 

Suggestions sults % the land should ri se near 

Gibraltar, changing the Mediterranean to a closed 
sea. How would the British Isles be influenced? 
Also Italy? 3. Can you tell about any of the great 
wars and generals of England, France, or Italy? 
4. Can you tell of any of the changes in boundary 
lines; for example, in Poland or between France 
and Germany? 


II. The British Isles 


1. Walk toward the British Isles. 2. What two 
large islands do they include? 3. What waters 
separate these two? 4. Name the 
three divisions of Great Britain. u ^ 

5. Locate the Orkney, Hebrides, Shetland, and 
Channel Islands. They are included among the 
British Isles. 6. What sea lies east of Great Bri¬ 
tain? 7. What country is nearest to Great Bri¬ 
tain (Fig. 358) ? What waters separate the two ? 
8. Compare the coast line with that of Spain (Fig. 
390) ; of Norway (Fig. 358). 


London is fully seven hundred miles 
farther north than New York City, and 
the British Isles are in the Rem arkable 
same latitude as Labrador, facts about 
England itself is a little smaller these isles 
than Alabama; and the British Isles, in¬ 
cluding England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, 
and several hundred small islands, are about 
the size of the state of New Mexico. 

Yet in spite of their northern position 
and their small area, the largest city in the 
world is located in the British Isles. More¬ 
over, Great Britain has more manufactur¬ 
ing than any nation excepting the United 
States. It has more foreign trade, a greater 
number of vessels upon the sea, and more 
colonies (Fig. 381) than any other nation 
on the earth. 

The character of the British people doubt¬ 
less offers one important explanation of the 
above facts. Being so near 
the mainland, the islands have partly 
been invaded by many hardy explained 
people, among them the Angles 
and Saxons , from whom the 
words English and Anglo- 
Saxons have been derived. The Normans 
also entered Britain, and still earlier the 
Romans under the lead of Julius Ctesar. 

Although formerly divided into different 
nations, England, Scotland, Wales, and 
Ireland are now united to form the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 

The inhabitants of each of these sections 
are noted for their energy, intelligence, 
and good character. 


1. By the char¬ 
acter of their 
inhabitants 



; 63 


64 


50 


BRITISH ISLES 

Scale of Miles 


L 


50 100 150 

Qitie « with over 1,000,000 -- - - ...LONDON 

Citiet with 500,000 to 1,000,000 _ GlaSgOW 

Cities with 300,000 to 500,000_ Edinburgh 

Cities with 100,000 to 300,000 _Portsmouth 

Smaller places _ Inverness 

Capitals of Countries ® 


SHETLAND 

ISLANDS 


{mainland 




$ 


Cfair I. 


Cape IVrafA 


ORKNEY ^ ( ^=’sANdAV 

ISLANDSr^O ° STR0, | SAY 

„ 's^-T%MAINLANO 

Jutland Firth 
*?Duncansby Head 


CD' 




\ 


1 ** 


o 






4 


skyeS. 

Sea of Q ^ 

0 the Hebrides ^ 

</■ 

Firth of Lurvi 
JURA t 


,od 


Nairn ;oJ 

Hess/ ^Keith 




Kinnaird Head 
Peterhead 

^Aberdeen 


Montrose 




Dundee, 


i 


S’ 


V- 

V7 


> Firth of tay 


irkcal dy//\> t h of Forth 




Matin 


Head 


- Hamilton 
p^Kilmarnook 


Edinburgh, 

v<t. Tweejid 


SN 


Bloody Foreland/- 


>0 

/L.Phyle 
<>ndouderry I 


Donegalihty^ 

Erris Head j 

\ Sligo 

pc* 1 

/Ball in* 


Be 


\Lough Neagh 
^Enniskillen 

Armagh^ >, \ 


O 


<\ v 


fries] 




Newry 
Dundalk 


ISLE 
OF MAN 


, S> . 

, ^Newcastle’ 

o \ A 

CarlisleVt • Av 

"Workington fl\ DaI . i 

S 


South Shields 
, Sunderland 


xn 




Barrow\A art * 

in-FurnesSo/ S ■? > 

Lancaster^ n 


Hartlepool 
ington^/^MiddleiU 

v York 


> 


iugh 


icarl orough 


Loop Head 
H.Shanntr 


7 L. Mask 
\L. Corrib 

Galway 


Limerick 


O Drogheda 


ytthlono 1 ' 


Dublin®’ 


Dundalk Bay 

IRISH l 

Liverpool 

> . Holyhead. t'" x \Birkenhead r 

[Kingstown $>) n 

ANGLESEYV/r^ 

'Snoivdon 


ojWicklow 


. , $ ( Carlow^ 

Kilkenny^ £ j° 


? Tralei 


_ KillaVpey 
° Lakes of 
NiltarneyCorli 


Tipperary 0 1 Clontuel 
Waterford ° 


1 WexYord/ 


Cardigan \ 
Bay 


G* 

'Carnsore Pt. 


Mizen Head ? 


st- 


G e ' 




.n Bra<,/ o. u 

1 ^ B Bo C £ n ° 

tTOrtinn' 1 ^ ^ 4heffi)ld Lin J> 

Manchester / j 

O \ NftT,T S * 

Longton De: 

V Shrewsbury 

Walsall Jfceices^e: 

cBirmingha: 

% 

Bedfjrfd 1 " 


Chester^ 

CD 


,6/ 

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THE BRITISH ISLES 


291 


The prevailing westerly winds also 
partly account for the greatness of the 

2. By the pre- United Kingdom. Two days 
vailing winds 0 ut 0 f three these winds blow 
across the British Isles; and, since they 
have crossed a vast expanse of warm water 
(p. 287), they greatly temper the climate. 
Indeed, the winter season is milder than 
that in northern 
United States, and 
the summer is cooler 
(Figs. 317 and 318). 

The prevailing 
westerlies, bearing 
an abundance of 
moisture (p. 287), 
so distribute it over 
the islands that no 
section suffers from 
drought. Yet the 
western portions re¬ 
ceive more rain than 
the eastern, because 
the damp ocean 
winds reach them 
first (Fig. 367). 

As already stated 
(p. 281), the moun- 

3. By the char- tains of 
acter of the sur- Great 

face Britain, 

like those of New 
England, are so old 
that they are worn 
very low. While 
these uplands rarely rise more than one 
or two thousand feet above sea level, 
there are occasional higher peaks of hard 
rock. For example, the granite peak of 
Ben Nevis, in Scotland, the highest point 
in the British Isles, is forty-three hundred 
feet in elevation. The Scottish Highlands 
(Fig. 368) are so rugged and barren that 
few people are able to live there. 

Where the rocks are softer, and less dis¬ 
turbed by mountain folding, there are lower 
and more level tracts. Point out the broad¬ 
est lowland of Ireland, Scotland, and Eng¬ 


land (Fig. 359). A narrow and very small, 
but important, lowland lies in southern Scot¬ 
land, near Edinburgh and Glasgow. There 
the rocks are so much softer than those of 
the highlands that, instead of a barren, 
hilly country, there is a fertile lowland. 
U pon this, called the Lowlands of Scotland, 
there are thriving industries and a dense 

population, as in 
many parts of Eng¬ 
land. 

A highland rim 
extends around Ire¬ 
land (Fig. 359), in¬ 
closing a lower, more 
level interior. Thus 
the surface of this 
island has the form 
of a shallow plate, 
and much of the 
land can be cul¬ 
tivated. 

A large part of 
these islands, there¬ 
fore, is either plain 
or low, hilly land, 
suited to agricul¬ 
ture. Thus the sur¬ 
face features have 
helped to make the 
British Isles an im¬ 
portant nation. 

The coast line of 
the British Isles is 
very irregular, as 
may be seen from the map 4 By the ir _ 
(Fig. 366). State the reasons regular coast 
(p. 285). How does the coast hne 
compare with that of New England ? 
Since the mountainous western portion 
had more deep valleys for the sea to enter 
than the level plains of the east, there are 
more good harbors on the west than on 
the east coast. On both sides, however, the 
mouths of the larger rivers usually make 
good ports. Why? 

Another reason for the importance of the 
United Kingdom is the fact that these islands 



voluams engraving co., n.v. 


Fig'. 367. — Rainfall of British Isles. 





















































292 


EUROPE 



have great natural resources, and have there¬ 
fore developed important industries. In 
5. By the natu- our study of the United States 
rai resources W e found that the people are 
mainly engaged in lumbering, agriculture, 
fishing, mining, manufacturing, and com¬ 
merce. There is very little lumbering in 
the British Isles for, although in early times 
a large part of the land was wooded, little 
forest now remains; and lumber is, there¬ 
fore, one of the leading imports. But all 
of the other indus- 


make excellent pasture land (Fig. 369). 
The mild winters and the damp air, which 
encourage the growth of grass, further 
favor stock raising. In addition, the cheap¬ 
ness with which grain is raised in other 
countries, like the United States, and car¬ 
ried to the British Isles, has made it less 
necessary for the British to use their land 
in raising grain. 

The cool summer climate, which is of 
advantage in some respects, is unfavorable 


tries are important, 
and some of them 
are remarkably de¬ 
veloped. 

Since no portion 
of the British Isles is 
arid, the 

Agriculture . 

r a n c h- 
1. Live Stock . 

ing in¬ 
dustry is not devel¬ 
oped there as in 
western United 
States. Much live 
stock is raised, how¬ 
ever (Fig. 368). In 
fact, grazing has of 
late so increased in 
importance that 
there is now as much land in pasture as 
in crops, and the British Isles are noted 
for their great number of fine cattle, 
sheep, and horses. There are about thirty 
million sheep on the Isles, while there 
are forty-five million people. The Shet¬ 
land Islands are famous for Shetland po¬ 
nies ; and on the three Channel Islands, — 
Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, near the 
French coast, — three breeds of cattle have 
been developed, which are well known in 
the United States. 

The importance of grazing is partly ex¬ 
plained by the fact that much of the surface, 
like that of New England, is too rocky or 
mountainous to be cultivated (Fig. 368). 
Besides this, some of the plains in eastern 
England, although too sterile for farming, 


Fig. 3C>8. — Sheep grazing on the mountain slopes in the Scottish Highlands. 

to many kinds of farming. For example, 
it prevents the production of corn, cotton, 
tobacco, and grapes, which re- 2. other farm 
quire warm . summers. More products 
hardy products, however, such as oats, 
barley, and wheat, are easily raised. Tur¬ 
nips, potatoes, beans, and peas are other im¬ 
portant crops; also hops, which, together 
with barley, are used in the manufacture of 
beer. Owing to the many towns and cities, 
truck farming is of great importance. 

The demand for farm land has been so great that 
large areas of swamp have been reclaimed by careful 
drainage, and these now make some of the most 
fertile farms. Yet in spite of the care that has 
been given to cultivating the soil, and to raising 
live stock, far less food is produced in the British 
Isles than is needed by the inhabitants. There are 
such vast multitudes of people engaged in other 







THE BRITISH ISLES 


293 



Fig. 3f>9. — An English farm with a flock of sheep and a herd of cattle grazing in the pasture. 


occupations that, if they were deprived of food from 
abroad, they would, it is said, begin to suffer from 
famine within a month. IIow different that is from 
our own country, which has so large an area, and so 
varied a climate, that it not only supplies the food we 
need, but produces enormous quantities to be sent 
abroad ! 

Since the early inhabitants had to cross 
the sea in order to reach these islands, and 


since most of their descendants have lived 
either on or near the coast, it is natural that 
many of the British should 
adopt a seafaring life. This 1S mg 
sort of life has also been encouraged by the 
fact that food fish abound on the shallow 
banks of the North Sea and of the ocean to 
the north and west of the islands. More 
than one hundred thousand 
men and twenty-five thou¬ 
sand boats from the British 
Isles are employed in 
fishing. 

Among the fish caught are 
cod, haddock, and herring, 
as off the coast of New Eng¬ 
land and Newfoundland. 
Another important kind is 
a flatfish, the sole, which 
resembles the flounder of 
our eastern coast. Salmon 
enter the rivers of northern 
Great Britain, and oysters 
are found along the southern 



Fig. 370. — An English country scene. On the left of the road, bordered by 
hedges, is a field of wheat ; on the right, watercress is being raised. 


















294 


EUROPE 


coast. Many fishing hamlets are scattered 
along the coast ; but the fishing industry 
here, as in our country, is becoming cen¬ 
tered more and more in the large towns, 
which possess the capital for large vessels 
and expensive fishing outfits. The chief 
fishing centers, like Boston and Gloucester 
in Massachusetts, are London, Hull, and 
Grimsby (Fig. 366) in England, and Aber¬ 
deen in Scotland. 

One of the resources of the British Isles 
which early attracted people from southern 
Mining Europe was the tin in south- 

1. The less com- western England. This metal 
mon minerals i s not mined in many parts of 
the world, but has always been in great 
demand. Even before the time of Ciesar, 
ships from the Mediterranean came to Eng¬ 
land to obtain tin for use in the manufac¬ 
ture of bronze. Small quantities of copper, 
lead, zinc, and even gold and silver ores, 
have also been discovered in the British 
Isles ; but at present there is little mining 
of these metals. 

On the other hand, the abundance of two 
other minerals, coal and iron ore, reminds us 

2. Coal and of our own country (pp. 5 and 

iron ore 285). The one small island 

of Great Britain produces more than half as 
much coal as all of our states together ; and 
the United States and Great Britain are 
the two leading coal-producing countries of 
the world. Figure 371 shows the sections 
of Great Britain in which coal is found. 
While most of the coal is bituminous, that 
in southern Wales is more like our anthra¬ 
cite. Large numbers of miners in the 
United States are Welshmen who have 
come from that section. 

Iron ore is also abundant and favorably 
situated. None of the British iron ore is 
far from coal ; and in some places the same 
shaft is used to bring both coal and iron to 
the surface. Limestone is also abundant 
and near at hand. This reminds us of the 
conditions at Birmingham, Ala. (p. 91), 
which is named after Birmingham, Eng¬ 
land, because they resemble each other in 


having an abundance of coal and iron ore 
near together. Find Birmingham in Fig¬ 
ure 371. Note the other cities near the coal 
fields. Why should large manufacturing 
cities develop here? The extent of the 
mining industry in the United Kingdom is 
indicated by the fact that more than half a 
million persons are employed underground. 



Fig. 371. — Map showing coal distribution in British Isles. 


Besides these minerals, various building 
stones are extensively quarried, as granite 
in Scotland, and slate in north- 3 other impor . 
ern Wales. Salt is also found ; tant mineral 
and there is clay of such ex- P roducts 
cellent quality for earthenware that sev¬ 
eral towns have become noted for their 
potteries, as have Trenton and Cincinnati 
in the United States. 

Considering the abundance of coal and 
iron ore on the one hand, and Manufacturing 
of wool from the millions of j conditions 
sheep on the other, it is clear favorable to its 
that Great Britain has mate- develo P ment 
rials for extensive manufacture. As in 








THE BRITISH ISLES 


295 



In spite of the enormous number 
of sheep in the British Isles, the 
manufacturing industry has so far 
outgrown the local supply of wool 
that millions of pounds must be 
imported every year. This condi¬ 
tion resembles that of New Eng¬ 
land, where much of the wool is 
brought from the West or from 
foreign countries. 


New England, the hilly sections have 
abundant water power due to the glacier, 
and this also has favored manufacturing. 
Later, when the use of steam became known, 
the abundant stores of coal were of great 
importance. 

The use of steam has led to the building of many 
factories, and to the growth of large manufacturing 
cities. Therefore, the making of cloth on hand 


hundreds of factories for the manufacture 
of woolen cloth. The principal center of 
this trade is Leeds, which has „ T ,. 
the added advantage of water kinds 
power. On the western side (l) Woolen 
of this hilly region is Brad- mam "factoring 
ford, noted for its broadcloth and worsted 
goods ; and neighboring cities manufacture 
woolen yarn, hosiery, carpets, and blankets. 

The woolen industry extends 
northward into Scotland and 
southward to Leicester, 
where the surrounding plains 
produce a breed of sheep that 
yields a wool suitable for the 
manufacture of worsted yarn. 


Fig. 372. — A country road in England. 

looms, at the homes of the weavers, has been gener¬ 
ally abandoned, although one still sees it in some of 
the country districts. 

Even in very early times the English were en¬ 
gaged in the weaving of woolen cloth. Later, 
owing to numerous wars, and to bad government 
on the continent, England became a refuge for 
industrial people from the mainland. This led to 
rapid progress in manufacturing. The peculiar 
energy and inventive genius of the British, which 
kept their machinery in advance of that used by 
other nations, must also be considered. For ex¬ 
ample, it was a Scotchman, James Watt, who in¬ 
vented the modern steam engine ; and it was George 
Stephenson who invented the first locomotive. 

The very smallness of the country is another 
advantage; for no matter- where a factory may 
be located, it is sure to be not far from coal fields, 
and within a few miles of a shipping point. 

In the mountainous section of northern 
England, near both coal and wool, there are 

O 1 


From the spinning and 
weaving of wool it was easy 
to turn to the ( 2 ) cotton 
manufacture of manufacturing 

cotton goods ; and on the western side of 
the northern mountains we find a great 
cotton-manufacturing industry. Dampness 
is one of the points in favor of that sec¬ 
tion, for in a dry air cotton is in danger 
of becoming too brittle to spin and weave 
easily. Another reason why this work is 
best developed on the west side of the 
island is the fact that it is nearer the 
United States, from which so much of the 
raw cotton comes. 

Since the British climate will not permit 
the cultivation of cotton, it is necessary to 
import all that is used. It requires over 
two billion pounds a year to supply the 
mills. Although much cotton is now ob¬ 
tained from Egypt, India, and other parts 
of the British Empire, our Southern States 





296 


EUROPE 


still supply the greatest quantity. The 
center of the cotton manufacturing is Man¬ 
chester. What other cities do you find 
situated near by ? 

The central portion of Great Britain, in¬ 
cluding southern Scotland and the two 
sides of the mountain range of northern 
England, is the seat of the greatest textile 
industry in the world. Can you name 


manufactures steel rails and armor plates 
for war ships. Glasgow is a center for 
shipbuilding and for the manufacture of 
locomotives and machinery of various 
kinds. In the smaller cities and towns 
near these places, there are similar works. 

As in New England, many places occupied with 
the textile industry also produce textile machinery 
and other iron and steel goods. The island is so 



Fig. 373. — Loch Lomond, a beautiful lake ou the southern border of the Scottish Highlands. 


cities of New England which are likewise 
engaged in cotton and woolen manufac¬ 
ture (p. 51) ? 

The cities of Great Britain that are 
most noted for iron and steel products are 
(3) Iron and BIRMINGHAM and SHEFFIELD 
steel manufac- in England, and Glasgow 
turin y in Scotland. Birmingham 

manufactures jewelry, watches, firearms, 
bicycles, steam engines, etc. Sheffield 
has for centuries been noted for its cutlery, 
the presence of grindstone quarries in the 
neighborhood being one reason for this par¬ 
ticular industry. Why ? Sheffield also 


small that coal and iron are cheaply shipped to all 
points; and on this account, manufacturing, though 
best developed near the coal fields, is not confined 
to these districts. 

Thus we see that here, as in the United States, 
coal makes possible an enormous manufacturing in¬ 
dustry. There is so much coal in Great Britain 
that, in spite of the forest of chimneys in England 
and southern Scotland, the output of coal is more 
than sufficient to meet the demands. The raw ma¬ 
terials for manufacture, however, are not sufficient; 
for all the cotton, much of the wool, and part of the 
iron ore must be imported. 

The three industries connected with 
cotton, wool, and iron have made Great 







THE BRITISH ISLES 


297 


Britain one of the great workshops of the 
world. The most important is cotton man¬ 
ufacturing ; iron ranks next; and wool is 
third. 

What has thus far been said applies 
chiefly to Great Britain ; but Ireland forms 
a striking contrast to Great 
Britain in several respects. 
In the first place, it is mainly 
a country of farms instead 
of manufactures (Fig. 374). 
The mild climate and damp 
air insure, excellent grass throughout the 
year, and about four fifths of the farm land 


is in pasture. It follows, therefore, that 
great numbers of cattle, sheep, and horses 
are raised. As in Great Britain, the prin¬ 
cipal grain is oats ; but barley, wheat, pota¬ 
toes, and turnips are also grown. 

Again, unlike Great Britain, Ireland is 
very barren of minerals. Building stones, 
such as granite, marble, and 
in mining sanc | s t 0 ne, are found, but there 

is very little coal or iron. 

The lack of coal for domestic use is partly made 
up by the abundance of “ turf,” or peat. Owing to 
the deposits of glacial drift, which have formed dams 
across the streams (Fig. 363), the level interior is so 
poorly drained that swamps, or bogs, occupy about 


one twelfth of the entire surface of the island. The 
water in these bogs protects the swamp vegetation 
from decay, so that such vegetation collects until it 
forms a sod, which, when dug up and dried, makes 
a fairly good fuel (Fig. 10). It will be remembered 
that similar deposits, in the larger swamps of the Coal 
Period, were the beginning of the coal beds which 
are now of so much value (p. 4). 

On account of the lack of fuel, most of 
the manufacturing in Ireland is done on 
the eastern side, where coal is 3 . i n manufac- 
easily obtained from England turing 
or Scotland. At one point the two islands 
are only thirteen miles apart. One of the 
most important manufacturing industries 
is the making of linen. The 
Irish linens, which take high 
rank in our country, are made 
from the inner bark of the 
flax plant. Flax is grown in 
various parts of the United 
States, but mainly for the 
sake of the seed, from which 
linseed oil is made for use in 
mixing paints and in making 
varnish. In Ireland, however, 
flax is raised chiefly for its 
fiber. The damp climate there 
is favorable to its growth, and 
the cheap labor makes possible 
the great amount of care re¬ 
quired in preparing it for the 
manufacture of linen. 

The stem of flax is tall and slender, and a field of 
it presents somewhat the same appearance as a field 
of oats. Instead of being cut, like grain, it is pulled 
up and left lying upon the ground for some time, 
exposed to the weather, so that the gummy sub¬ 
stance, which holds the woody matter and fiber to¬ 
gether,' may decay. Travelers in northern Ireland, 
in summer, see field after field covered with flax, 
much of which is used in the linen factories of 
Belfast. 

After the fiber has been separated from the woody 
core by machinery, it is split and combed out with a 
steel brush, and thus made ready for spinning. It 
is made into thread in much the same way as cotton 
and wool are, and this is then woven into napkins, 
tablecloths, etc. Name other articles made of linen. 

Ireland offers a fourth contrast to Great Britain 
in regard to population. Not only is it far less 


Contrast of 
Ireland with 
Great Britain 

1. In promi¬ 
nence of its 
agriculture 



Fig. 374. — A country village in Ireland, surrounded by pastures and 

fields of grain. 








298 


EUROPE 



Coal. __ - 

Railroads 
Steamship Lines. 


tlacf burn 


yjtslon 


BraAk 


Grimsby 


» LiVerpoi 

Birkenht ilf, 


SheHidld 


jrarrim&m 

J yj r 


.incoln. 


lottinghai 


rewsbur; 


Leicester 


'olwr h 


Birmingham 


/ JCauibri'lfje 


■‘ALuton 


'Jlfrttr 


[Oxford* 


Cardiff 


Swindon' 


Bristol 


Rending 


hath am 


Tunbridge' 


'Southampton 


(Brighton 


Boulogne 


V^PorUmouth 

^SL^OF 

WIGMT\ 


Tvxetei 


lymoutl 


LIVERPOOL 


'st.Paufi 

KL<i»StK.\. 




V Kr>MMm>Vs 

'•.ua«i>»..\V c 


'SSx'iJU; 


LONDON 


ONl MAlF Mtt-E 


The cities most noted 
for manufacturing have 

. . , .,. already been 

Principal cities ,. , 

, , mentioned : 

1. Their loca¬ 
tion, and connec- n a m e I y, 
tion with one L E E D S, 
another 

Bradford, 

Manchester, Shef¬ 
field, Birmingham, 
and Glasgow. What 
industries are developed 
in each ? Tell where 
each is located. 

There are other large 
cities along the coast; 
for so much manufactur¬ 
ing calls for an enormous 
import of raw materials 
and food, as well as the 
export of manufactured 
goods. These cities 
must, therefore, be the 
gateways to and from 
the island. Since Great 
Britain lies far north, 
between Europe and the 
New World, these ship¬ 
ping points are naturally 
located on the eastern, 
western, and southern 
sides, at those points 
where the best harbors 
exist, and not far from the 
great industrial centers. 

First among the coastal cities to be noted 
is London, on the east side, with Bristol 
opposite it on the west coast. North of 


Fig. 375. — The location of London and Liverpool. 


the two most important ports are Southamp¬ 
ton and Portsmouth. What are the two 
principal cities of Ireland? Locate each. 


densely peopled, but the number of inhabitants is 
decreasing. Partly because of the unfavorable 
laws imposed by England, the Irish 
4. In population haye long been discontented with 

their lot; and for many years they have been leav¬ 
ing their country. Since 
1847, the number of inhab¬ 
itants has been reduced from 
eight million to four million 
four hundred thousand. 

They have sought refuge 
chiefly in the United States 
and Canada. 


London is Hull, with Liverpool on the 
opposite side; and in southern Scotland is 
Edinburgh, near the coast, paired with 
Glasgow on the west. On the south side 



















































THE BRITISH ISLES 


299 



Steamships, railway lines, and canals con¬ 
nect the various cities, carrying immense 
quantities of freight. In Great Britain 
and Ireland there are nearly four thou¬ 
sand miles of canal and over twenty-three 
thousand miles of railway. 

London, the capital of the empire and 
the largest city in the world, is situated 
z. London on the Thames River. Like 
(l) Its location many other British rivers, the 
lhames has a wide, deep mouth, owing 
to the sinking of the land. London is 


Fig. 376. — London Bridge across the Thames, over which a stream of 
people and vehicles is almost constantly passing. 

located upon its banks as far inland as 
high tide allows vessels to go, or fifty miles 
from the open sea. The advantage of this 
position lies in the fact that, while it is in 
the interior of the island, it has direct water 
communication with foreign countries. 

New York, we know, owes its greatness 
largely to the fact that it is the gateway to 
a productive interior, with an enormous 
area; but almost any point in England 
may be reached by rail from London in a 
few hours. Although Great Britain is so 
small, its population is nearly one half as 
great as that of the entire United States; 
and the port of London is the point of en¬ 
trance for much of its food. 

Even before the Romans came to Eng- 


Being a very old city, many of the streets are 
narrow and crooked. On that account transpor¬ 
tation of goods, and of people, is often slow and diffi¬ 
cult. Some of the principal streets are too narrow 
for street cars, so that, unlike American cities, the 
people have to be carried through these streets 
mainly by omnibuses (Fig. 377). One of the largest 
companies formerly ran as many as thirteen hun¬ 
dred buses, and employed five thousand men and 


hind, the site of London was a fortified 
camp, situated on a low hill surrounded by 
tidal marshes and mud flats. /0 , p , * 

l lie Komans had a terry at toryandpres- 
tliis point; and much later, ent size 
over eight hundred years ago, the first 
London Bridge was built (Fig. 376). This 
gave the city a great start. Since that 
time, it has grown until Greater London 
now includes over 7,000,000 persons. How 
does that compare with the number in Scot¬ 
land ? In Ireland? In New York City? 

As in all great cities, one 
of the principal industries is 
manufacturing. ,,, ,, - 

& (3) Manufac- 

Nearly all kinds turing and 
of goods are commerce 
made, as in New York, Chi¬ 
cago, and Philadelphia. How¬ 
ever, the fact that London 
lacks coal and iron near at 
hand, places it at some dis¬ 
advantage in manufacturing 
as compared with Liverpool 
and Glasgow. 

London is the greatest ship¬ 
ping point in the world. Its 
rows of piers extend twenty 
miles down the river, and its 
railways radiate in all direc¬ 
tions (Fig. 375). It is not 
so noted for its export of manufactured 
goods as are Liverpool and Glasgow, which 
are nearer the great manufacturing dis¬ 
tricts ; but it is the chief center for im¬ 
ports. For example, nearly all the tea and 
wine used in Great Britain enter through 
London. The great warehouses are filled 
with goods from all climes, such as flour, 
sugar, meat, tobacco, hides, and cocoanuts. 
















300 


EUROPE 




fifteen thousand horses. About a third of the 
omnibuses are now being run by electricity. As 
in New York and other American cities, under¬ 
ground railways have been built in various parts 
of the city, running under houses and streets. 


London is the capital of the British Em¬ 
pire (Fig. 381), which is the name given 
(4) Importance to the United Kingdom and its 
in other ways dependencies. It is a center 
for the publication of books and magazines, 
and is provided with noted picture gal¬ 
leries, libraries, museums, and magnificent 
buildings. 

Its wealth and trade are so extensive that 
it has been the money center of the world, 
though New York, the money center of the 
United States, now rivals it. The leading 
bank, called the Bank of England, is the agent 
of the government in much of its business, 
and employs about a thousand persons. 


Just below the city, on the south side of the river, 
is the Greenwich Observatory (p. 223), from which 
meridians of longitude are num¬ 
bered and time is regulated. A few 
miles up the Thames is Windsor 
Castle, one of the palaces of the 
the empire. Find Cambridge and 
Oxford (Fig. 366), the two leading university towns 
of Great Britain. 


(5) Places of 
interest near 
London 


sovereigns 


of 


Fig. 378. —The famous Westminster Abbey in London. 


Fig. 377. — Omnibuses in one of the narrow 
London streets. 

Southwest of London, on the coast, is 
Southampton, where many ocean steamers 

from the 3 . other Eng- 
United lish cities 

States stop (1) In the south 
(Fig. 375), °f En y land 
and where fast trains 
wait to convey passen¬ 
gers to the metropolis. 
Close to Southampton 
is Portsmouth, which 
has a great navy yard. 

Almost due west of 
London, near the head 
of Bristol Channel, is 
Bristol, which is en¬ 
gaged in the lumber 
trade and in tobacco 
and chocolate manufac¬ 
turing. It was formerly 
next to London in size, 
but Liverpool lias now 












THE BRITISH ISLES 


301 


far outstripped it. Can you suggest some 
reason why ? Just west of Bristol is Car¬ 
diff, in Wales, the chief British port for 
the export of coal. 

Knowing the occupation of the dense 
population in northern England, we can tell 

&) In,he north the principal exports of Hull 
and Liverpool. What must 
they be ? The former city naturally trades 
mainly with Europe, and the latter with the 
■Americas and West Africa. 

Before the discovery of the New World, 
the west side of Great Britain had little 


center and shipping point, for the same rea¬ 
sons that Liverpool is. State these reasons. 
What must be some of its principal imports 
and exports ? Why ? 

Edinburgh, unlike the other large cities 
named, is not very important either as a 
shipping point or as a manufacturing cen¬ 
ter. It is distinguished as the capital of 
Scotland, and as one of the most beautiful 
cities in the British Isles. In former days, 
before Glasgow developed commerce with 
America, Edinburgh was much more im¬ 
portant than Glasgow; for it commanded 



Fig. 379. — The city of Edinburgh. 


commerce, and Liverpool (Eig. 375), there¬ 
fore, had little business or growth. With 
the settlement of America, however, the city 
grew until it now has an immense trade with 
North and South America, and is the third 
citjr in size in the United Kingdom. Many 
passengers from America land at this port 
and go to London by rail. Besides its com¬ 
merce, Liverpool is also important for its 
shipbuilding. Why is this a favorable place 
for such an industry ? A ship canal, about 
thirty-five miles in length, has been built to 
Manchester, at an expense of $75,000,000. 

Glasgow (Eig. 366), on the west side of 
4 . Cities of the Lowlands of Scotland, is 
Scotland second to London in size among 

British cities. It is a leading manufacturing 


the entrance to the Lowlands of Scotland. 
It still has important trade, and is a noted 
educational center. The well-known Uni¬ 
versity of Edinburgh is situated here. 
Leith, a short distance away, is the port 
for Edinburgh. 

Farther north, on the coast, are Dundee 
and Aberdeen (p. 294). The former sends 
forth a number of Arctic whaling vessels 
each year, and is also engaged in the manu¬ 
facture of linen. 

The principal cities of Ireland are on the 
east and south sides. Why ? What has al¬ 
ready been said about Belfast 5 . Cities of 
(p. 297) ? It is also noted Ireland 
for its shipbuilding. Dublin, the capital 
of Ireland, and the chief port for the Eng- 











302 


EUROPE 


lisli trade, ships farm and other products to 
England and receives manufactured goods 
in return. Queenstown has a fine harbor, 
and is a port of call for vessels bound from 
America to Great Britain. 

While we have learned many facts about 
the British Isles, some important questions 
„ „ are not yet fully answered, 

for greatness For example, why does this 
of British little country possess more 
Empire colonies (Fig. 381) than any 

other nation of the earth ? Further, why 
should it have the greatest foreign trade? 
And why the greatest number 
of vessels upon the sea? 

Some of the reasons in 
answer to these questions are 

1. Why so as follows : The 
many colonies fact that Great 
Britain is so small — no point 
in the island being more than 
seventy miles from salt water 
— is a reason why many of the 
British have become sailors. 

It is not surprising, therefore, 
that they have been great 
explorers. 

Nor is it to be wondered at 
that, as these explorers dis¬ 
covered new parts of the 

world, they laid claim to them 
in the name of their mother 
country. In this way, and by 
war, Great Britain came into 
possession of the Thirteen Colonies of 
North America, and of Canada, India, Aus¬ 
tralia, much of Africa, and many other 

places (Fig. 381). At present her ter¬ 

ritory includes about one fourth of the land 
surface of the globe, and nearly one third of 
its inhabitants. 

These colonies and dependencies help to 
explain Great Britain’s enormous foreign 

2. Why so great commerce; for the colonies 

a foreign com- have found it more to their 
merce advantage to trade with the 

mother country than with other nations, 
which speak a different language and have 


less understanding of them or sympathy 
with them. The colonies sell raw products 
and food stuffs to the mother country, and 
she sends to them clothing, steel goods, and 
other manufactured articles. It is largely 
the exchange of goods with these colonies 
that has made the foreign trade of Great 
Britain nearly twice that of any other na¬ 
tion. Next to her colonies, Great Britain’s 
greatest trade is with the United States. 

Some of the reasons why this little island' 
owns more vessels than any 3 Why so 
other nation have already ap- many ships 


peared. In fishing, exploring, and making 
settlements, a large number of ships have 
been needed; and many war ships have been 
required for the proper defense of her 
widely scattered colonies. Another reason 
for so large a navy is the fact that the Brit¬ 
ish Isles are cut off from all other nations 
by water. For defense, therefore, the Brit¬ 
ish must rely upon war ships rather than 
upon a standing army. 

Further than this, the British are actually 
forced to own many ships. Here are over 
forty-five million people living on two small is¬ 
lands, from whose soil it is impossible to obtain 



Fig. 380. — A street scene in Dublin. 












FIG. 381 

















































































































































304 


EUROPE 


the necessary food. They must send ships 
away for their flour, meat, sugar, tea, coffee, 
etc. ; and they must send abroad for much 
of their raw materials for manufacture. 
Also, in order to pay for the raw materials 
and food, their manufactured goods must 
be shipped to all parts of the world ; other¬ 
wise such extensive manufacturing would 
be impossible. From this it is plain why a 
very large number of vessels must be em¬ 
ployed ; and there are two reasons why the 



Fig. 382. — The House of Parliament in London, where 
the House of Lords and House of Commons meet. 


British, rather than other nations, should 
own them. In the first place, such trade is 
profitable ; and secondly, when they own 
their own vessels, they can send them where 
and when they will, and are, therefore, better 
able to secure food and supplies in case of war. 

These facts, coupled with the remarkable 
energy of the British, are the principal 
reasons why the United Kingdom greatly 
surpasses all other nations in number of 
war ships and merchant vessels. 

The government of the United Kingdom 
Government of is a limited monarchy, the 
the United present ruler being King 
Kingdom George V. We know that 


in the United States our general laws are 
made at Washington by a Congress com¬ 
posed of a Senate and a House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. In the United Kingdom the 
law-making body, which corresponds to our 
Congress, is called Parliament. It is like¬ 
wise composed of two bodies, the House of 
Lords and the House of Commons. 

The House of Lords is made up of members of the 
nobility, or men with inherited titles, who are not 
elected by the people. In former times the Lords 
were so powerful that the people had little control 
of the government; but for many generations the 
Lords have had much less power. The House of 
Commons, whose members are elected by popular 
vote, is now by far the more important. Through 
them the people are able to make their own laws, 
and the government is therefore one that allows 
great freedom. 

The sovereign corresponds to our President; but 
the execution of laws is really in charge of a Cabinet, 
composed of a Prime Minister and several other Min¬ 
isters, who are responsible to the House of Commons 
for their actions. If the Ministers lose the support 
of the House, they are obliged to resign ; and then 
others are appointed who will carry out the wishes 
of the people. 

1. What remarkable facts can you state about 
the position, size, and importance of these islands? 
2. How does the character of the in- . 
habitants help to explain the impor- 
tance of the islands? 3. How is the V ues lons 
importance of the islands also partly explained by 
the prevailing winds? 4. By the character of the 
surface of the land ? 5. By the irregular coast line ? 

6. By the natural resources? 7. Tell about the 
raising of live stock on these islands. 8. What are 
the other leading farm products? 9. Of what im¬ 
portance is fishing? 10. What important minerals 
are found? 11. What conditions greatly favor 
manufacturing? 12. What can you tell about the 
woolen manufacturing? 13. Cotton manufactur¬ 
ing? 14. Iron and steel manufacturing? 15. How 
does Ireland compare with Great Britain in promi¬ 
nence of agriculture? What are the farm products 
of Ireland? 16. How does Ireland contrast with 
Great Britain in mining? 17. In manufacturing? 
Describe the chief manufacturing industry. 18. What 
about the population of Ireland? 19. Name and 
locate the principal cities of the British Isles. 

20. Tell further about the location of London. 

21. Its early history and present size. 22. Its 
manufacturing and commerce. 23. Its importance 
in other ways. 24. What places of interest are near 
London ? 25. Locate and state the important facts 
about other cities in the south of England. 26. In 





305 


THE NETHERLANDS , BELGIUM , AND LUXEMBURG 


the north. 27. Tell about the leading cities of 
Scotland. 28. Of Ireland. 29. How has the Brit¬ 
ish Empire come to have so many colonies? 30. So 
great a foreign commerce? 31. So great a navy 
and so many merchant vessels? 32. Describe the 
government of the British Isles. 

1. Make a sketch map of Great Britain, showing 
the position of the highlands and lowlands, principal 

Suggestions ™ ers an< J. cities * ~ Considering 
the prevailing winds, which side of 
the great cities must be most free from smoke? 
3. IV hy are sheep able to eat shorter grass than 
cattle? 4. Make a list of goods manufactured 
from flax, and place samples iu the school cabinet. 
5. Write a short paper telling in what ways the 
people of the British Isles and the United States 
depend on one another. 6. State ways in which 
New England and Great Britain resemble each other. 
i. V\ hat names of British cities have you met in 
your study of the United States? In what portion 
of the United States are they? 8. Read in George 
Eliot’s “ Silas Marner ” a description of old-fashioned 
manufacturing by hand looms. 9. Also in “John 
Halifax, Gentleman,” an account of the introduction 
of steam into the factories. 10. What books writ¬ 
ten by Englishmen have you read ? 11. What early 
English explorers took part in the exploration of 
North America ,J 


III. The Netherlands, Belgium, and 
Luxemburg (Fig. 390) 


Map Study 


1. Compare the area of The Netherlands with 
that of Belgium (p. 451); with that of Great 
Britain. 2. Compare the coast lines 
of The Netherlands and Belgium. 
3. What large river crosses The Netherlands? 
Through what countries does it flow? 4. What 
countries border The Netherlands? 5. Belgium? 
6. Make an outline map of these two countries. 


i. The Netherlands (Holland) 

Figure 383 shows The Netherlands to be a 
peculiar country. The greater portion is 
Surface very low, and some parts are 

features as m uch as fifteen feet below 

sea level. In fact, if protection against sea 
and river were not provided, about one half 
of the surface would be under water at least 
a part of the time. This explains why the 
country, sometimes called Holland, is more 
commonly known as The Netherlands , mean¬ 
ing the low country. 


The Rhine has brought much of the soil; 
some of it, no doubt, all the way from the 
Alps. A large part of the country is, in 
fact, a delta of sand and clay built by the 
Rhine. It is so low and level that, over 
much of the surface, the only notable eleva¬ 
tions are either sand dunes, thrown up by 
the wind, or glacial moraines of sand and 
gravel (p. 14). In Figure 363 notice how 
far the ice sheet advanced in this section. 
Hard rocks are found only in the extreme 
eastern and southeastern parts, where the 



WIILIAMS ENS. CO., N.Y. 


The 


fcifcy; | Sea Use 

' A Below Sea level 
HjjJZt'aa than Zb feet above Sea level 
H Over 35 feet 


Fig. 383. —Map to show the portion of The Netherlands 
that is below sea level. 


highest point is a little over a thousand feet 
above the sea. 

As the population increased, and there 
was need for more land, it was found possi¬ 
ble by building embankments, How the low- 
called dikes , to keep the high land has been 
tides and rivers from overflow- reclaimed 
ing the salt marshes and flood plains. The 
people have even undertaken the difficult 
task of reclaiming the shallow sea bottom 
itself. Such drainage began in the twelfth 
century and has continued until the present 
day. It has already about doubled the area 
of The Netherlands, and now a scheme is 
projected by which the Zuider Zee is to be 
reclaimed. 












306 


EUROPE 



Fig. 384. — A Dutch windmill, used for pumping the water from the 
low lands behind the dikes. 


and thirty feet high. Some idea of the need of 
such great walls may be gained by standing behind 
one of them during a storm and listening to the fierce 
beating of the ocean waves on the opposite side, 
several feet above one’s head. 

The ditches for draining the land really form ca¬ 
nals, which, by means of their embankments, inclose 
houses, gardens, and fields, much as fences or stone 
walls inclose houses and gardens in other countries. 
They are so numerous that they extend over the 
lowlands in a great network. 

It might seem that a country so small as 

Number and this ’ ant ^ wit ^ suck a surface, 
character of could not support a large 
the people population. Nevertheless, The 


Agriculture 


Agriculture is the principal in¬ 
dustry of the Kingdom. The lead¬ 
ing farm products are 
grains, such as rye, 
oats, wheat, barley, and buckwheat. 
Potatoes, sugar beets, beans, peas, 
and flax are also grown. There are 
many gardens, including flower gardens 
where bulbs are raised. The Dutch raise 
such excellent bulbs that they are sold all 
over the world. 

More land is devoted to pasture (Fig. 
385) than to all these crops. This is partly 
because much of the higher land is too sandy 
for cultivation, and partly because the mois¬ 
ture in the lowlands aids in the growth of 
excellent grass. Cattle, hogs, sheep, and 
horses are raised in great numbers ; and 
quantities of butter and cheese are made. 

Both the Zuider Zee and 
the North Sea, near at hand, Fishin 2 


The first step in reclaiming a section of land is to 
build dikes around it. Then the water is pumped 
from the inclosure and emptied into the rivers, or 
into the sea. Windmills were formerly the only 
means for such pumping, and many are still in use 
(Fig. 384); but now many steam pumps are also 
used. These pumps must be worked all the time in 
order to keep out the rain water, as well as that 
which soaks through the soil. 

There are sixteen hundred miles of sea dikes, 
some of which are fully three hundred feet thick, 


Netherlands has about two thirds as many 
inhabitants as the remarkably productive 
state of New York, which is four times as 
large. They are a very prosperous people, 
too. 


Perhaps the leading cause for this prosperity is the 
excellent character of the Dutch people, as the Neth¬ 
erlander are called. For centuries they have felt an 
intense love for civil and religious liberty ; but, being 
a small nation, they have suffered many 
hardships in attempting to maintain such 
liberty. At one time they were under 
German control; later they came under 
the cruel rule of Spain; but finally they 
obtained their independence, and their 
form of government is now a limited 
monarchy. 

While their efforts for freedom brought 
untold suffering to the Dutch people, it 
helped them, in one way, by causing people 
of advanced ideas to seek refuge among 
them. Thus it was to Holland that the 
Pilgrims first fled when religious persecu¬ 
tion drove them from England ; and from 
time to time large numbers of Huguenots, 
Germans, and other persecuted people found 
refuge there. Such people brought new 
ideas, and had a great influence on the 
intelligence with which Dutch industries 
were developed. 








THE NETHERLANDS , BELGIUM , AND LUXEMBURG 


307 


contain many food fish ; and this fact has 
made fishing an important Dutch industry. 

In so level a country there can be little 
water power ; and little mineral wealth is 
Mining and to be expected in a land made 
manufacturing U p of soft clays and sands. A 
poor grade of iron ore is found in the bogs, 
and a little coal is mined in the extreme 
southeast. 

Under the circumstances, one might not 
expect much manufacturing. Fortunately, 
however, there is an abundance of coal near 
by in Belgium, Germany, and England. 


of clay, and needing both bricks and tile in their 
drainage work, they developed manufacturing in 
these directions. Some of the Dutch pottery, known 
as Delft ware, is greatly prized for its beauty. In 
fact, manufacturing now ranks next to agriculture 
in importance here. 

Commerce is highly developed for several 
reasons. In the first place, , 

the ditches, built for the pur- extensive 01 
pose of drainage, are also commerce 
useful as canals; and these, 1- Easy trans- 
together with the rivers, make portatlOQ 
transportation by water very easy to all 



Fig. 385. —Cattle feeding in the rich pastures of Holland. A typical Dutch scene. 


And, since the Dutch people require quan¬ 
tities of cloth, shoes, machinery, etc., they 
import both coal and some of the raw mate¬ 
rials in order to manufacture for themselves. 

The strangers who fled to The Netherlands to es¬ 
cape persecution did much toward developing early 
manufacturing. Its growth has been further aided 
by the efforts of the Dutch to reclaim land from the 
sea. The windmills, with their inclosing buildings, 
were valuable not merely as houses, storehouses, and 
pumps, but also for the purpose of grinding grain 
and doing other kinds of work. Thus, lacking water 
power, the Dutch learned to make some use of wind 
power. Besides, in order to build the canals and 
dikes, and to drain the land, they needed imple¬ 
ments, such as plows and pile drivers, and these 
they manufactured. Again, having an abundance 


sections of the country. Furthermore, the 
flat-topped dikes make excellent wagon 
roads; and the level nature of the land 
renders the building of railways a simple 
matter. 

A second reason for the importance of 
commerce is the position of Holland. This 
country lies directly in the 2. Position 
path of entrance to northern of Holland 
Europe; and it is crossed by the Rhine 
River, which is navigable for a long dis¬ 
tance through Germany. Therefore, much 
of the American and British trade with cen¬ 
tral Europe is carried on through Holland. 

The Dutch colonies (Fig. 418) furnish a 













308 


EUROPE 



third reason for the extensive commerce. 
Since the very earliest times the Dutch 
have been in close contact 
3. Its colonies the salt water. Not only 

have they battled with the sea in reclaim¬ 
ing their land; but to visit some of their 
near neighbors they have been obliged to 
go by boat. The men have, therefore, be¬ 
come expert sailors; and when discoveries 


eral other East India islands (Fig. 418). 
The manufacture of raw products obtained 
from the colonies forms one of the principal 
industries of the coast cities. 

Amsterdam and Rotterdam are the two 
principal cities. The former, the largest 
city in The Netherlands, is 
about the size of Baltimore. 

It is connected with the ocean by canal, and 
is noted for its university and 
museums, as well as for its ship¬ 
ping, manufacturing, and dia¬ 
mond cutting. The rulers of 
Holland are crowned at Am¬ 
sterdam, although the royal 
family resides at The Hague, 
where the government build¬ 
ings are situated. 

Rotterdam, next to Amster¬ 
dam in size, is the chief seaport 
of The Netherlands. Its loca¬ 
tion, near the mouth of the 
Rhine, makes it one of the prin¬ 
cipal ports for entrance to the 
interior of the continent. This 
explains why Rotterdam is the 
European terminus for some of 
the important steamship lines 
from New York and other parts 
of the world. 


Fig. 386. — A canal in the city of Amsterdam. 

of new lands were being made, the Dutch 
sailors naturally took part. This, of course, 
was followed by the founding of colonies in 
distant lands. 

The attempt of the Dutch to colonize our 
Hudson Valley was stopped by the Eng¬ 
lish ; but Holland retains possession of 
other important regions. Of these, Dutch 
Guiana in South America has already been 
mentioned (p. 272); but the most im¬ 
portant Dutch colonies are Java and sev¬ 


2 . Belgium (Fig. 416 ) 

In much of Belgium the sur¬ 
face of the land reminds us of 
PI oil and. The Comparison of 
country is low and surface with 
flat in the northern tllat of Holland 
and western parts, but gradually rises, and 
grows more rolling toward the south and 
east. There is much more of this hilly 
land in Belgium, and the highest point 
(2230 feet) is more than twice that in 
The Netherlands. 

Although Belgium is even smaller than 
Holland, its population is much larger, or 
over seven million. How does Number and 
that compare with the popula- character of 
tionof New York State ? Little tIie P eo P le 






THE NETHERLANDS. BELGIUM , AND LUXEMBURG 


309 




Belgium is, in fact, the most 
densely populated country on 
the earth. 

Like the Dutch, the Belgians 
have endured untold sufferings in 
their long struggle for independence. 

Their country has been, from time 
to time, a battlefield for the larger 
countries, or Powers, of Europe; for 
example, the Battle of Waterloo 
(1815) was fought here ; also it was 
the scene of many battles in the 
World War, 1911-i918. 

Belgium, together with parts of 
France and The Netherlands, once 
formed the country of Flanders , 
and nearly half the Belgian people 
still speak the Flemish language. 

Since 1830, Belgium has been an 
independent country, and the pres¬ 
ent form of government is a limited monarchy. 

The intelligence of the Belgians is of the highest 
order. Even during the Middle Ages their woolen 
manufactures were the best in Europe; and at vari¬ 
ous times the kings of England induced Flemish 
artisans to move to England for the purpose of im¬ 
proving the manufacturing there. Once the Great 
Powers of Europe declared Belgium neutral territory. 
In 1911 the Germans violated this agreement, and 
sent their armies through Belgium to attack France. 


Fig. 387. — A view in the hilly southern portion of Belgium. 


Belgium resisted and during the war stiffered greatly. 
What protection from such invasion has now been 
given to Belgium (Fig. 390) ? 

More than half the inhabitants are en¬ 
gaged in agriculture, the chief products, 
besides live stock, being grain, . 
flax, hemp, fruit, and sugar AgnCUltUre 
beets. Among the farm animals, the 
Flemish horses are especially noted for 
their great size and strength. 


The Belgian method of farming forms a striking 
contrast to that in the United States. Instead of 
farms with from one hundred to several thousand 
acres, as in our country, the Belgian farms usually 
contain not more than two or three acres. To a 
large extent, spading takes the place of plowing; 
and such hand labor, guided by the experience of 
many generations, secures large crops of the best 
quality. In spite of such careful cultivation of the 
soil, however, there are so many people in Belgium 
that much food has to be imported. 


Fig. 388. —A Belgian woman working at the spinning 
wheel. There is much of this baud work in Belgium. 


Quite different from the level northern 
plain, close set with farms and towns, is the 
hilly region of the southern Mining and 
angle, covered with forests, manufacturing 
The weathering of ages, which has worn 
these mountains so low, has brought to 
light valuable mineral deposits, especially 
coal and iron ore. As in England, these 
two minerals occur near together. Lead, 
zinc, and silver are also found here ; and 








BIO 


EUROPE 


there is much quarrying of marble and 
other building stones. 

Belgium, therefore, possesses advantages 
for agriculture similar to those of Holland, 
while the minerals give far greater oppor¬ 
tunity for manufacturing. These facts help 
to explain why the population is so dense. 


By its position Belgium secures many of 
the advantages that Holland enjoys; that 


is, it is a gateway to and from Commerce 
the interior of Europe. To 
be sure, its coast line is only about forty 
miles in length and the water there is shal¬ 
low; but Antwerp has an excellent harbor 



Fig. 389. — Some of the quaint houses of Ghent facing one of the canals on the low plain of northern Belgium. 


More than one hundred thousand men are 
engaged in mining, and coal and coke are 
among the leading exports of the kingdom. 

The northwest slope of the hilly region 
is one of the world’s busiest industrial 
regions. As in England, the three most 
important kinds of manufacturing are cot¬ 
ton, wool, and iron and steel. Linen and 
glass are also made. The country is so 
small, and there are so many water ways and 
railways, that coal is transported cheaply 
to all sections. Manufacturing, therefore, 
is well distributed over the kingdom, al¬ 
though coal is found only in the south. 


on the broad lower course of the small 
Scheldt River. 

There is no large river, like the Rhine in Hol¬ 
land, but two smaller streams, rising in France, are 
navigable for some distance across the plain. There 
is also an extensive system of canals. Besides these 
water ways, Belgium has more miles of railway, for 
its size, than any other country. For these rea¬ 
sons transportation of goods is one of the leading 
industries. 

The Belgians do not possess such valuable colo¬ 
nies as the Dutch, but they have been prominent in 
African exploration. It was the Belgian king who 
sent Stanley to Africa, and the Belgian Congo is 
now a Belgian colony. 























FRANCE 


311 


Brussels, the capital and largest city, is 
situated in the heart of the kingdom. The 
Cities name Brussels carpets suggests 

one of its industries; but car¬ 
riage and lace making are at present among 
its most important kinds of manufacture. 
Brussels is an educational as well as a politi¬ 
cal and commercial center, having numerous 
picture galleries, museums, and schools. 

Antwerp, next in size, is.some distance 
inland on the navigable Scheldt River. 
Some of the great steamship lines from New 
York have their European terminus here, 
and the port is one of the most important 
in Europe. The leading kinds of manufac¬ 
turing are sugar refining, distilling, lace¬ 
making, and shipbuilding. 

Many other cities and towns are important 
manufacturing centers. The largest are Liege, 
the “ Birmingham of Belgium,” engaged in the 
manufacture of firearms, cutlery, glass, and various 
kinds of machinery; and Ghent (Fig. 389), noted 
for linen and cotton goods, and for machinery. 


3 . Luxemburg 

On the southeastern border of Belgium is the 
small duchy of Luxemburg, governed by an heredi¬ 
tary grand duchess and a Parliament. Like Belgium, 
by agreement of the Great Powers of Europe, it was 
until 1914 neutral territory. Agriculture, iron min¬ 
ing, and manufacturing are the principal industries. 


The Netherlands. 
land. 2. How has 

Review 
Questions 

about fishing. 


1. Describe the surface of Hol- 
the lowland been reclaimed ? 
3. What about the number and 
character of the people? 4. Tell 
what you can about the agriculture; 

5. What about mining? 6. Ac¬ 


manufacturing. 


count for the importance of 
7. What reasons can you give for the extensive 
commerce of Holland ? 8. Name and locate the 
principal cities. 

Belgium. 9. Compare the surface of Belgium 
with that of Holland. 10. What about the number 
and character of the Belgian people? What kind 
of government have they now? 11. What is the 
condition of agriculture? 12. Of mining and 
manufacturing? 13. Of commerce? 14. Locate 
and state important facts about the cities. 15. Tell 
about Luxemburg. 

The Netherlands. 1. Why are the winds likely 
to blow with special force and regularity across 


Holland? 2. Why is this fact of special value to 
the Dutch? 3. Find out more about the flower 
gardens of the Dutch. 4. Have you 
seen any Dutch pottery, especially * u ?2 estions 
Delft wares? 5. Find out why the Pilgrims did 
not remain in Holland instead of coming to America. 

6. Why should not Rotterdam be as large a city 
as New York ? 7. Find out about the Peace Con¬ 
ferences of 1899 and 1907 at The Hague. 8. What 
reasons are there for selecting a small country like 
Holland for such a conference, and for making 
treaties between nations which have been at war? 

Belgium. 9. There are greater extremes of tem¬ 
perature in Belgium than in England. Why? 
10. Find out some facts about the battle of Water¬ 
loo. 11. Give several reasons for spading instead 
of plowing land. 12. Examine a piece of lace. 
From what material is lace made, and how is the 
work done? 13. Towns in Belgium are often known 
by two names. Why? 14. Figure out the number 
of persons per square mile (see Appendix, p. 451) 
in Belgium and compare it with the number in 
New York, or in your own state. 

IV. France 

1. France is the nearest country to the British 
Isles. Estimate the distance between the two. 
2. Compare the two countries as to 
area. 3. As to population. 4. What Map Mudy 
countries border France? 5. What waters? 6. In 
what respects is its position favorable to commerce ? 

7. What do you observe about the general direction 
of the rivers? Name them. Locate the island of 
Corsica, which belongs to France. 

The early inhabitants of France, called 
Gauls, were conquered by the People and 
Romans, who gave them their government 
language and many of their customs. 

After the fall of Rome, France was di¬ 
vided into independent kingdoms, which 
were often at war with one another or with 
neighboring countries. The natural bound¬ 
aries of France have, however, tended to 
bring these kingdoms together; for the 
country is inclosed on two sides by the sea, 
and elsewhere, in large part, by mountains. 
Notice how completely the Pyrenees sepa¬ 
rate France and Spain; and what a bar¬ 
rier the lofty Alps form along the Italian 
and Swiss borders. Even north of the 
Alps, a part of the boundary is formed by 
highlands (Fig. 360). 





55 


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Copenhagen 


NORTH 


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CHANNEL IS. QVj 


WESTERN EUROPE 

Scale of Wiles 


Cities with over 1,000,000___1.011 d.011 

Cities with 200,000 to 1,000,000_Lisbon 

Cities with 100,000 to 200,000_Seville 

Smaller places - Coimbra 

Capitals with less than 100,000_BEKNE 

Capitals of Countries (•) Other Cities o 


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1 Nuremberg 


Rouen I \ aNr %> 

i““3«r^|V «te^rs»,y 4,| 

Verdun! \ Stras3 . / 15 / Slut Tgart 

1 NaVy V ur8 £*/ 

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Mulhausenol 


^ i « ; v' i Augsburg 

T ) q , .L. Constance 

of' e /~ ; ^/^Luccroe |_\i A V^ TRlA - 

t, / SVVI I i.c.ry-'V' 

L.of / o Lausanne ^ A. 

St ' Etie 7°4 

' ''V'T^'tXa 


Nationality to he decided by Plebiscite _ 




45 


O ^ I J ~ Alicante 

/‘ CordoBa 

D, V h' t 

i r ar° ( // vi r 

>>> p L-ranada 

uy Seville _. 

]T Jerez de li ~*ierf, a Ne vftO A 

r _ .A ° -Fontera r -,__ /-8— 

<-ad,zb J—/ Malaga '''\Tmeria 

' Sira! * "/ Ci4z a /7-e^| i ! , ,? llar 


Longitude West from Greenwich 



Longitude East from Greenwich 



Willinmi Engraving Co., N.Y. 


FIG. 390, 

























































FRANCE 


313 



While the inhabitants were thus partly 
protected from invasion, there were few 
barriers within France itself to keep the 
people of different sections apart. It was 
not difficult, therefore, to bring the several 
kingdoms under one rule. 

Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra in the 
Pyrenees (p. 320), are the only exceptions. The 
principality of Monaco, only eight square miles in 
area, is a noted winter resort because of its fine 
climate. 

France has changed its form of govern¬ 
ment several times. For a long time it was 


Temperature 


Fig. 391. — A road across the rugged Pyrenees which lie between France 

and Spain. 


a monarchy, and over a century ago it be¬ 
came a republic ; but this did not continue 
long, for Napoleon Bonaparte became so 
powerful that he was made emperor. There 
have been other changes since then, the last 
one being in 1871, when the republican form 
of government was again established. 

As we have seen, the chief highlands of 
Surface fea- France are in the south and 
tures and rain- southeast. Among these the 
fall loftiest are the Alps, whose 


highest peak, Mont Blanc (15,781 feet), is 
in Prance. Since there are no mountains in 
the western part of the country, the west 
winds are able to bear vapor to all parts of 
France, thus supplying all sections with an 
abundance of rain for agriculture. 

1 he position of the highlands is favorable 
to commerce as well as to farming. Fully 
three fourths of France is a plain, sloping 
westward from the low central plateau. All 
but one of the large rivers rise in this 
plateau, and flow gently across the plain to 
the Atlantic. Thus navigation is possible 
far into the country. Locate 
and name the four largest 
rivers. How does the Rhone 
differ from the other three? 

As might be expected, the 
summers are warmer than in 
England, since 
France lies al¬ 
most entirely south of that 
country, and is less under the 
influence of the ocean. The 
southeastern section, although 
it lies as far north as Boston, 
has a semi-tropical climate 
(Fig. 392). This is because 
of the warm Mediterranean 
waters, and the protection 
from cold north winds afforded 
by the mountains (pp. 288 and 
311). 

With so favorable a climate, 
and so much level land, Franee 
has naturally be- Agriculture 
come a farming l. Crops 
country. Nearly half the people are en¬ 
gaged in agriculture. The same grains are 
raised as in England. What are they 
(p. 292)? Wheat is the most important, 
and more of this grain is produced than in 
any other European country excepting 
Russia. Yet France raises only about half 
as much wheat as the United States, and 
not nearly enough for the needs of her 
people. 

Grapes, not important in the British Isles, 










314 


EUROPE 



2. Live stock 


thrive in the warmer climate of central and 
southern Franee. This fruit is the most 
valuable of all French crops, and more 
grapes are grown in France than in any 
other country except Italy. In the Rhone 
Valley, and on the warm Mediterranean 
coast, there are groves of olive, orange, and 
mulberry trees. The leaves 
of the latter furnish food for 
the silkworm (p. 315). 

As in England and other 
countries, the highlands are 
unsuited to cul¬ 
tivation, and are 
in large part given over to 
grazing. As in England, 
too, there are broad tracts of 
lowland that are used for 
pasture. These facts ex¬ 
plain why there are more 
than fourteen million cattle 
and eighteen million sheep 
in France. 

France is inferior to the 
British Isles in mineral prod¬ 
ucts. Coal is 
Mining the most valu¬ 

able mineral; but while Great 
Britain, after supplying her 
many factories, has a large 
amount of coal left for ex¬ 
port, France has to import some. 

The principal coal beds lie close to Bel¬ 
gium and the German boundary. Smaller 
beds are found at St. Etienne and a few other 
places. New territory added as a result of 
the war has considerably increased the sup¬ 
ply of coal and probably more than doubled 
that of iron ore. Fine clays for porcelain 
are found in central France, and building 
stones are quarried in many places. 

In spite of the limited supply of fuel, 
France is a great manufacturing nation. 
Manufacturing ^ ranks fifth in the production 
l. Why very of silk, second in the produc- 
extensive tion 0 f w ine, anc [ there is ex¬ 

tensive manufacturing of metal, cotton, and 
woolen goods. One reason for these manu¬ 


factures is the fact that coal is easily ob¬ 
tained, either in France or from Belgium 
and England. 

Another reason is found in the nature of the 
people themselves. Frenchmen have a peculiar ap¬ 
preciation of what is graceful, delicate, and elegant. 
This is illustrated by the fact that so many of our 


Fig. 302. — A view in Nice showing the semi-tropical foliage of 
southern France. 


fashions in dress come from France; and a gown, a 
pair of gloves, or a hat from Paris is expected to be 
a trifle more desirable than one bought elsewhere. 
On this account the French have given much atten¬ 
tion to the manufacturing of the finer kinds of 
goods. Thus their artistic taste has had great influ¬ 
ence upon both the kind and amount of their manu¬ 
facturing. 

The northern part of France, including 
Lille, Roubaix, and Reims, as well as 
cities near the mouth of the 
Seine, is the section especially kj n ^ g eading 
noted for the woolen industry, (l) Woolen and 
Here coal is most easily ob- «*” 
tained; and large numbers of 
sheep are raised on the hills and plains 
near by, while foreign wool from Argentina 









FRANCE 


315 


and Australia is easily imported at Havre 
and at the Belgian port of Antwerp. Re¬ 
membering that the hosiery, carpets, under¬ 
clothing, and other goods are of high 
grade, and such as wealthy people wish, we 
see that this location, between the two 
wealthiest capitals of the world, is especially 
favorable. Next to silk goods, woolen cloths 
form the most important French export to 
Great Britain. 

There is also much cotton manufacturing 
near the coal fields of northern France. An 



Fig. 393. — Piles of silkworm cocoons ready to be 
unwound. 


important reason for such work in this sec¬ 
tion is the ease with which American cotton 
may be imported; and this explains why 
Rouen, on the Seine, is a center for cotton 
goods. There are cotton factories in east¬ 
ern France, also, where water power is used 
instead of steam power. .Why should you 
expect water power in that section ? 

Because the climate and soil of the Rhone 
Valley are favorable to the growth of the 
(2) Silk manu- mulberry tree, and because coal 
factoring mines are near by, this section 
is a great silk-manufacturing region. Lyon 
is the center, but St. Etienne and Paris 
are also noted for this industry. Some of 


this manufacturing is done in large facto¬ 
ries, some in the homes of the workmen 
where hand and foot power are used in 
place of steam. 

The traveler in the Rhone Valley sees grove after 
grove of mulberry trees, carefully tended in order 
to supply an abundance of leaves for the silkworm 
to eat in summer. The silkworm moth, at the end 
of the caterpillar stage, weaves a cocoon about itself. 
The material of which the cocoon is composed is a 
thread, about two miles in length, which must be 
carefully unwound. The single thread is so very 
fine that, in order to make a fiber strong enough 
for spinning and weaving, it must first be united 
with several others. 

Since the worms are reared under cover, the silk 
industry may be carried on in any climate in which 
the mulberry tree will grow. It is possible, there¬ 
fore, to produce raw silk in many parts of the 
world; but the feeding of the worms, and the chang¬ 
ing of the cocoons into silk for the market, require 
much labor, care, and skill. On that account silk 
production is chiefly confined to those parts of the 
world where laborers will accept lowwages, and where, 
because several generations of people have done this 
work, habits of watchfulness and care have been de¬ 
veloped. Japan, accordingly, produces the greatest 
amount of raw silk; but France, in the midst of 
Europe, where the market for silk goods is greatest, 
also produces a large quantity and is a leading 
country for the manufacture of silk. Make as long 
a list of articles made from silk as you can. 

The extensive cultivation of grapes has 
been mentioned. Great quantities of grapes 
are made into wine for export ( 3 ) other 
or for use in France. In that manufacturing 
country nearly every one drinks wine at his 
meals, or wine mixed with water. 

The manufacture of steel goods is impor¬ 
tant in some places, but to no such extent as 
in Great Britain. Other kinds of manufac¬ 
turing are mentioned, under the cities. 

Paris, the capital of France, is the largest 
city on the continent of Europe, and the 
third largest in the world. It Principal cities 
numbers more than 2,880,000 l. Paris 
inhabitants. 

Paris is situated on the Seine at a point 
where there is a small island in the river. 
This island was once a good (i) importance 
place for defense, and also of its location 

an important aid in bridging the river 










EUROPE 


316 



Calais 


Boulognl 


Amiem 


VN 


Le Havre 


>Fo tigered 


.aindl 


Orleanr 


- £ •: $W. i' -i 

§||@ 

/ A,. ' j-J i'y A'.A: /,v.' ■*.,' -rA' 


KhSI! 


(Fig. 394). The location is especially 
favorable to the growth of a large city, for 
several reasons. The 
Seine, having a slower 
current than the Rhone, 
and being less subject to 
overflows than the Loire, 
is more easily navigable 
than any other river in 
France. Its upper tribu¬ 
taries, too, bring Paris 
into close touch with 
eastern Franee ; and, by 
the aid of canals, there 
is water connection with 
the Loire and Saone also, 
and with the Rhine in 
Germany. Furthermore, 

Paris is situated on the 
main trade route from 
the Mediterranean to 
northern and central 
France, which follows 
the Rhone, the Saone, 
and the Seine. Finally, 

Paris is located in the 
midst of the most fertile 
portion of the country, 
and not very far from 
several other densely 
populated countries. 

For all these reasons 
it has always been 
the principal French 
city. 

Reference has already 
been made to the artistic 

(2) Its impor- t,aste ^ ie 
tance as an art French. 
center Napoleon 

and other rulers col¬ 
lected art treasures from 
various nations, and 
founded museums and 
schools which have made Paris famous. 
This explains why large numbers of 
Americans go to Paris every year to study 
art. 


One of the old palaces, known as the Louvre , is 
the most noted art gallery in the world. It contains 


\ ' \ RjJIr-oa Js .. . . 
—SttiVHlU pUnf 


PARIS 


Fig. 394. — To show Paris and surrounding country. Notice how closely the 
railways follow the stream valleys. Why should they? 


thousands of works of art, the most celebrated of all 
being the marble statue called the Venus of Milo. 
Among the paintings, one of the most famous is 
Raphael’s “ Madonna and Child with St. John,” 
copies of which are often seen in our homes. 








































FRANCE 


317 



Fig. 395. — A view in Paris showing the broad streets and parks. 


Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is 
Versailles, where there is another palace that was 
erected in the days of royalty. It is now used mainly 
as a museum, and scores of the large rooms are deco¬ 
rated with the finest of paintings. It is among such 
treasures that the students of art spend much of 
their time. 

It is not strange, therefore, that Paris should be 
noted, the world over, for its beauty as a city (Fig. 
395). The wide streets, the beautiful parks with 
their fountains and statues, and the fine public 



Fio . 396. — Notre Dame Cathedral, one of the most famous buildings in 
Paris. General view from the river. 


buildings and old royal palaces are wonderfully 
attractive. Even the dwelling houses are in good 
taste, for it is required by law that new buildings be 
so planned as to be in keeping with those near by. 
Therefore one seldom sees an unattractive building 
in Paris. 


Like other great cities, Paris has many 
manufacturing industries. The superior 
taste of the Parisians has led them to pay 
especial attention to the manufac¬ 
ture of articles which (3) its manu- 
combine usefulness f actures 
with beauty, such as jewelry, furni¬ 
ture, gloves, and fashionable shoes. 
The Sevres porcelain is made in 
the suburbs of Paris; and both 
this and the Limoges ware, manu¬ 
factured at Limoges, are celebrated 
for their beauty. 

Although so far inland, Paris 
ships more goods by water than 
any other French city. (4) its com- 
The extensive system merce 
of canals, by which the country is 
crossed in all directions, has al¬ 
ready been mentioned (p. 316). 
Vast sums have been spent in 
dredging the lower Seine, so that 












318 


EUROPE 


the depth of water between Rouen and 
Paris now exceeds ten feet. Small vessels 
can proceed directly to Paris ; but larger 
ships transfer their goods to trains, or 
smaller boats, at Havre and Rouen. 
Railway transportation is also well provided 
for, since the chief railways of France radi¬ 
ate in all directions from Paris (Fig. 394). 


Bordeaux, on the Garonne River (Fig. 
397 ), in the midst of a fertile grape-raising 
district, is the chief port for (2) Bordeaux 
the export of French wines. and Lyon 
Locate the cities previously named (pp. 314 
and 315), and tell for what each is impor¬ 
tant. Note especially Lyon, the center of 
the silk industry of France. 



Fig. 397. — A part of Bordeaux aud the Garonue River. 


Altogether, therefore, Paris is the political, 
artistic, manufacturing, and commercial 
center of France. 

Havre, which is almost as busy a port 
as Marseille, has an extensive trade in cof- 

2. Other cities fee from Brazi1 ’ and in wheat 
(1) Havre, and other materials from the 

Boulogne, and United States. Farther to the 
northeast is Boulogne, where 
some of the American steamships stop ; and 
not far distant is Calais, the nearest port 
to England, where boats cross the Strait of 
Dover to England. 


The leading seaport of France on the 
Mediterranean is Marseille, located near 
the mouth of the Rhone. The 
delta of the Rhone is too ^ Marseille 
marshy for a city, and Marseille occupies 
the nearest point where there is a good 
harbor and high ground. For many cen¬ 
turies the Rhone Valley was the principal 
gateway from the Mediterranean to central 
Europe, and it is natural, therefore, that a 
city should grow near the mouth of the 
Rhone River. One route leads to the Seine 
Valley, and thence to Paris (p. 316), north- 










SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


319 


ern France, and Belgium. Another ancient 
route of travel enters Switzerland past Lake 
Geneva, out of which the Rhone flows ; and 
still a third route leads, through an opening 
in the mountains, into the Rhine Valley and 
Germany. 

In spite of the great amount of internal 
commerce on the numerous rivers, canals, 
Weakness of and railways, and in spite of 
France as a the extensive foreign trade, 
naval power, France is not a great naval 
with reasons p 0W er like the United King¬ 
dom. In fact, France has only one nine¬ 
teenth as much tonnage as Great Britain, 
and only nine tenths as much as Norway. 

This is not entirely because of lack of 
acquaintance with the sea, for there are 
many French fishing and merchant ships. 
The small number of good harbors, and the 
frequent and destructive wars during the 
last century, are among the reasons why 
France depends so largely upon other na¬ 
tions, such as Great Britain and Norway, 
for vessels to carry her goods. Why is it 
safer for France than for Great Britain to 
be thus dependent? 

On the other hand, France has taken a 
leading part in the exploration and settle¬ 
ment of new lands. You will 
remember that the French for¬ 
merly had extensive possessions in North 
America. Where were they? Where are 
her present colonies in the New World 
(Fig. 418)? 

In Asia, France holds a part of Indo-China and a 
very small bit of India; and she owns numerous 
islands in different portions of the world (Fig. 418). 
Her most important colonies at present are in Africa, 
as follows : (1) Algeria and Tunis, across the Medi¬ 
terranean ; (2) a vast area south of these countries, 
including a large part of the Sahara Desert, the 
Sudan, the upper Niger, and the country north of 
the Congo River; and (3) the large island of Mada¬ 
gascar, east of southern Africa. 

1. What can you tell about the people and gov¬ 
ernment of France ? 2. Locate Monaco and Andorra. 
Review 3. Describe the surface of France; 

O f- n the climate. 4. What about agri- 

V culture there? 5. Mining? G. Why 

is manufacturing extensive, in spite of lack of fuel? 


French colonies 


7. Tell about the woolen and cotton manufacturing. 

8. Silk manufacturing. 9. Other manufacturing. 

10. Explain the importance of the location of Paris. 

11. Show how Paris is important as an art center. 

12. As a manufacturing center. 13. What about 
its commerce? 14. Locate and state the important 
facts about other cities in France. 15. What about 
the weakness of France as a naval power? 16. Name 
and locate the principal colonies of France. 

1. What is the name of the president of France? 
2. Give reasons why one river, such as the Loire, 
might be much more subject to over¬ 
flows than another, such as the Suggestions 

Seine. 3. Examine Figure 363 to see if the glacier 
reached into any part of France during the Glacial 
Period. 4. Raise a silkworm from the egg. 5. Ex¬ 
amine a cocoon, and see if you can unravel some of 
its thread. 6. Also unravel a piece of silk goods 
and examine the threads. 7. What influence have 
the railway tunnels through the Alps probably had 
upon the commerce of Marseille? 8. The Suez 
Canal? Why? 9. See if you can find any Sevres 
or Limoges ware. 10. Draw an outline of France, 
with the principal mountains, rivers, and cities. 


V. Spain and Portugal (Fig. 390) 

1. What cities in the New World are in about 
the same latitude as Madrid (Fig. 390) ? 2. Com¬ 
pare the area of the Spanish penin- „ 
sula with that of France (Appendix, U ^ 

p. 451). 3. Compare the populations (Appendix, p. 

451). 4. Compare the directions taken by the rivers 
(Fig. 359). 5. Judging from the map (Fig. 390), 

what about the probable number of good harbors? 
6. What has been stated about the temperature and 
rainfall in Spain (p. 288) ? 7. What islands in the 

Mediterranean Sea belong to Spain ? 

The people of this peninsula once had 
much the same rank among nations as is now 
held by the British. Name Reasons for 
countries that they controlled, the decline of 
Now, however, both Spain and these countries 
Portugal are classed among the weaker 
nations of Europe. 

One cause for this decline is the back¬ 
wardness of the people. The mountainous 
character of the peninsula is another. The 
various races on the peninsula, cut off from 
one another by table-lands and mountain 
ranges, have never been firmly united into 
one nation with common interests. For 
centuries they were divided into small, in¬ 
dependent kingdoms, but just before the 











320 


EUROPE 






discovery of America, most of these states 
were brought under one rule; and later 
even Portugal was joined to Spain. 

Portugal, which is partly separated from 
Spain by deep gorges and canyons, soon 
broke away. Andorra , a tiny country in 
the Pyrenees, was never fully conquered, 
and is still independent ; and the union of 
some of the others has been by force rather 
than by choice. At present Spain is a 
limited monarchy; but in 1910 Portugal 
drove the king away and became a republic. 

Many of the important facts 
about Spain and Portugal are 
The highlands explained by the 

1. Their extent elevation of the 
land. On the northern bound¬ 
ary stand the Pyrenees (Fig. 

391), continued on the west 
by the Cantabrian Mountains, 
while in the extreme south are 
the lofty Sierra Nevada ranges 
(Fig. 359). Between these 
two mountain systems is a 
broad plateau, two or three 
thousand feet above sea level, 
broken by numerous short 
mountain ranges (Fig. 360). 

In the Ebro Valley on the 
northeast, and the Guadal¬ 
quivir (meaning Great River) 

Valley on the southwest, there are lowlands. 
Point to these rivers on the map (Fig. 
390). The only other extensive lowland is 
a narrow strip near the sea, which reaches 
most of the distance around the peninsula. 
A very large portion of the surface, there¬ 
fore, is made up of plateaus and mountains. 

The highlands have an important in¬ 
fluence on the climate. Owing to the 

2. Their influ- elevation of the land, the in- 
ence on climate terior has cold winters, though 
the summers are hot; and because of the 
fringe of mountains, the rainfall is light 
everywhere except near the northwestern 
coast. Here the ocean winds lose their 
moisture in rising over the slopes, and thus 
cause abundant rainfall (Fig. 365). The 


southern portion of Spain, like southern 
California, is in the horse latitudes (p. 229) ; 
and here the climate is so arid that irrigation 
is necessary for agriculture. 

The position of the Spanish peninsula, 
between the two busiest seas of the world, 
and between Africa and cen- 3 xheirinflu- 
tral Europe, suggests that it ence on com- 
might be a natural route for merce 
commerce between the two continents. 
But the highlands separate , rather than 
unite, these regions, so that the Spanish 


peninsula has never been a great thorough¬ 
fare for the transportation of goods. 

There are several other important effects of the 
highlands. In the first place, the rivers are not 
navigable; for in descending from the arid plateau 
their courses are rapid and their volume slight. Be¬ 
sides that, most of them have cut such deep, narrow 
valleys, like our Western canyons, that they are 
useless for irrigation and are even a hindrance to 
travel. The principal exception is the Guadal¬ 
quivir, which has a wide valley, and up which 
vessels are able to go as far as Seville. 

Since the interior is so arid and rugged, Spain has 
little forest, little agriculture, few roads, railways, 
and canals, and not a dense population. With a 
few exceptions, therefore, the chief towns are to be 
found along the coast. 

In one respect the elevation of the land 
is an advantage because it causes great 























SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


321 


variety of climate, and hence many kinds 
of farm products. What countries of 
Agriculture South America does this con- 
1. Grazing dition call to mind? 

In such a country we may expect graz¬ 
ing in the uplands and along the mountains; 
and Spain is, in fact, noted for the excellent 
grade of its sheep and mules. There are 
also many cattle, especially in the rainy 
northwest; but the fact that so much of the 
country is arid explains why there are 
many more sheep and goats than cattle. 



Mining 


Fig. 399. — A Spanish peasant bringing vegetables to market in his 

donkey cart. 


The sheep often wander about in large 
flocks, sometimes as many as ten thousand 
together, under the care of a number of 
shepherds and their dogs. In summer they 
feed among the mountains, but in winter 
they are driven down to the more protected 
lowlands for shelter. 

Wheat is the most common farm crop 
in Spain, since it requires little rain ; but 
many of the farmers are so 

Farming unprogressive that less wheat 
is raised than might be. In many of the 
valleys, where irrigation is possible, and on 
the lowlands along the coast, the farmers 
are more progressive and prosperous. Bar¬ 
ley, rye, and corn are grown, in addition to 
wheat, and these are among the staple 
foods of the people. Quantities of grapes 
are also raised in Spain and Portugal; and 


in the southern part of the peninsula the 
bark of the cork oak is a source of income 
to both countries. 

The arid southeastern coast is wonder¬ 
fully productive. One reason for this is 
the warm climate, due to the Mediterranean 
(p. 288); another is the number of moun¬ 
tain streams, which, though useless for 
navigation, are very valuable for irrigation. 
Some of the products of this section, be¬ 
sides wheat and corn, are cotton, grapes, 
olives, figs, dates, oranges, lemons, and rice. 

Several crops of some products 
may be raised in a year. 

The Spanish peninsula is re¬ 
markably rich in minerals, lead, 
silver, copper, and 
quicksilver, or mer¬ 
cury, being among the most 
important. Spain produces 
more quicksilver than any other 
country, and is exceeded only 
by the United States in the 
output of copper and lead. 
Coal and iron ore are also 
found in several parts of the 
peninsula, but the coal is of no 
great value. The iron, which 
is mainly found on the northern 
slope of the Cantabrian Mountains, occurs 
in large beds, and is very valuable. 

In mining, as in other industries, the un¬ 
progressive character of the people prevents 
proper development of the resources. Much 
of the benefit from the mines is due to the 
capital and enterprise of foreigners rather 
than to the Spaniards. 

From what has been said above, it is 
plain that manufacturing does not flourish. 
This fact is all the more evi- Manufacturi 
dent when we consider that 
more than two thirds of the Spaniards and 
three fourths of the Portuguese cannot read. 
A nation so backward can hardly be expected 
to have developed extensive manufacturing. 
Thus, although they have some coal and 
could easily import more, much of their 
iron ore is shipped to the coal fields of 







322 


EUROPE 


Great Britain instead of being smelted at 
home. In some places, however, as will be 
seen in our study of the cities, there is ex¬ 
tensive manufacturing. 

Madrid, the capital and metropolis of 
Spain, has over a half million inhabitants; 

Principal Cities but unlike i>iost other large 
of Spain cities so far studied, it is not 

1. Madrid and an important manufacturing 
vicinity center. The reasons for its 

size are its central location, and the fact 


tree, nor fence, nor house; only the weeds and scat¬ 
tered vegetation of an arid waste. One of the most 
frequented places in Madrid is an enormous build¬ 
ing with seats for many thousands, in which bull 
fighting takes place (Fig. 400). This brutal sport is 
enjoyed by most of the Spaniards as a baseball or 
football game is in our country. 

Another place of note among the high¬ 
lands of Spain is Granada, the 2 Granada 
last stronghold of the Moors, 
who invaded Spain, from Africa, centuries 



that it is the seat of the government. All 

o 

the principal railway lines crossing the pen¬ 
insula, to connect the coastal cities, con¬ 
verge at this point. 

Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent royal 
palace, and one of the finest art galleries in the' 
world, is in some respects a very attractive city. 
The surrounding country, however, is far from 
attractive; for from the streets of Madrid one looks 
across the country for miles and miles, seeing not a 


ago. To this point among the mountains, 
at the crossing of the best routes of travel, 
from east to west, and from north to south, 
the Moorish people withdrew. Here they 
were able to hold out against the Spaniards 
for two hundred years, and the city grew 
to a population of four hundred thousand. 
At present, Granada contains less than one 
fifth as many inhabitants, and its principal 
attraction is the Moorish palace, or Alham- 

























SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 


323 



bra (Fig. 401), one of the finest examples 
of Moorish architecture. 

On the lowlands west of Granada are 
Seville and Cadiz, both flourishing cities 
in former days, when vast stores of plunder 


were brought from Spanish colonies in the 
New World. Cadiz is now a fortified naval 

harbor; and Seville is re- 3 . other cities 
covering some of her former in southern 
commercial importance. It Spain 
has some manufacturing, especially of to¬ 
bacco ; and in one factory about five thou¬ 
sand women are employed in making cigars 
and cigarettes. 


Malaga, which has one of the warmest climates 
in Europe, is engaged in the shipment of w T ine, rai¬ 
sins, and grapes. Of what grape does the name 
remind you? 

Gibraltar , a steep hill, with bold cliffs rising on 
nearly all sides, and with a town at its base, has be¬ 
longed to England since 1704. This 
hill of solid rock (Fig. 402) is, per- 4 ' Gibraltar 
haps, the strongest fortification in the world, and 
guards the entrance to the Mediterranean. Why 
should the English especially want such a stronghold 
here? 


On the whole, Spain is poorly provided 
with harbors; and while the majority of 
the people dwell near the coast, 5 . Principal 
they take a small share in seaports 
foreign commerce. Barcelona and Va¬ 
lencia are the leading seaports. Barce¬ 
lona, the second Spanish city in size, is 
the more important port and is a textile 
manufacturing center as well. The region 
about Valencia is a beautiful garden, much 
like that around Los Angeles in southern 



Fig. 402. —The rock of Gibraltar, seen from the Spanish mainland. 




















324 


EUROPE 


California. The two sections are quite alike 
both in climate and products. Name some 
of these products (p. 145). In addition to 
the products of southern California, rice is 
grown on the lowlands near the coast. 


The only remnants of her vast foreign possessions 
now left to Spain are mainly in Africa. These in¬ 
clude a few small settlements on the 
coast of Morocco ; a portion of the 
western coast of Sahara, having little 
value; and a coastal strip and a few small islands 
in the Gulf of Guinea. The Canary Islands, west of 
the northern coast of Africa, and the Balearic Isles, 
in the Mediterranean, also belong to Spain. 


Colonies of 
Spain 


Lisbon and Oporto are the chief cities of 
Portugal. The former, the capital and 
Principal cities metropolis, is a very beautiful 
of Portugal city. It lies on a broad bay 
where the Tagus River enters the sea, and 
has one of the finest harbors in existence. 
Oporto gives the name to port wine. The 
lower part of the Douro Valley is one of the 
richest wine districts in Europe ; and Oporto 
is an important point for its export. 


Portugal, like Spain, has lost much of her foreign 
territory. The Azores Islands, far to the west in 

Colonies of ^1 an tic, and the Madeira Is- 

p . . lands, to the southwest, are a part of 

the kingdom. The Cape Verde Is¬ 
lands, off the west coast of Africa, are also depend¬ 
encies. In addition, Portugal has large possessions 
in Africa, and some small ones in Asia. 

1. What was the former rank of these coun¬ 
tries ? State reasons for their decline. 2. State the 
Review extent of the highlands. 3. What 

Ouestions influence have the highlands on the 

climate? 4. How do the hoi'se lati¬ 
tudes affect the climate ? 5. Explain the influence 
of the highlands on commerce. 6. State the main 
facts about the grazing. 7. Name the farm products. 
8. What minerals are found ? 9. Why is manufac¬ 

turing of so little importance? 10. State facts 
about Madrid and vicinity. 11. About Granada. 
12. Locate and state the important facts about other 
cities in southern Spain. 13. For what is Gibraltar 
important ? 14. Tell about the principal seaports of 

Spain. 15. Name and locate the colonies of Spain. 
16. Locate the principal cities of Portugal, and tell' 
for what each is important. 17. What colonies has 
Portugal ? 

1. About what portion of the boundary line 
between Spain and Portugal is formed by rivers? 


2. What must be the influence of railways upor 
the old-fashioned methods of farming in the iu 
terior of Spain? 3. Look in the Q 
report of the United States Census u 22 es 10ns 
to see what per cent of our jwpulation cannot read. 

4. Learn what is meant by the Pillars of Hercules. 

5. Find pictures of Moorish architecture. 6. Read 
Washington Irving’s “ The Alhambra.” 7. Make a 
sketch of the Spanish peninsula, including the prin¬ 
cipal mountains, rivers, and cities. 


VI. 


Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 

(Fig. 358) 

1. The Scandinavian Peninsula is the largest in 
Europe. What is its length in degrees (Fig. 358) c t 
In miles? 2. How does its western 
coast remind you of the western coast ^ ^ 

of Scotland and Ireland ? 3. What proofs do you see 
of glacial action ? Where? 4. What do you observe 
about the rivers of Sweden? 5. Which of these 
three countries has the largest population ? 6. How 
does it,compare with New York State in area and 
population ? With your own state ? (See Appen¬ 
dix, pp. 451 and 452.) 7. What points in North Amer¬ 
ica have about the same latitude as Christiania and 
Stockholm? 8. On Figure 312 find how near to 
Scandinavia the west wind drift reaches. 9. Locate 
Denmark; point out the islands that form a part 
of the country. 10. At the entrance to what sea 
does Denmark lie? 


These three countries have long been 
more or less united. The reason for this is 
that the best settled parts are p eople 
close together and not sepa- j xheirreia- 
rated by any important barrier, tion to one 
Most of the inhabitants of another 
Norway and Sweden live in the southern 
part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, with no 
natural barrier between them ; and only a 
narrow, shallow sea separates Scandinavia 
from Denmark (Fig. 416). 

The people of the three countries are 
descended from a common stock, and at 
times have had a single government, though 
now independent of each other. Therefore 
they have many interests in common. The 
written language of the Norwegians and 
Danes is still the same, and, until recently, 
Norway and Sweden were united under one 
king. At present each country is a limited 
monarchy. 

These people have been closely connected 



NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 


325 


with our own history, for they made some of 
the early invasions and settlements in Great 
2 . Their reia- Britain, and thus are to he 
tion to us numbered among our ances¬ 

tors. Their daring seamen reached Green¬ 
land, by way of Iceland, and discovered 
America nearly five hundred years before 
Columbus visited it. During the last cen¬ 
tury they have migrated to the United States 


Fig. 403. — Peasants of Norway in their native dress. 

by thousands, and have chosen homes in 
many states. 

In these three countries together there 

_ are only about one fourth as 

Some reasons / . . 

for the inde- many inhabitants as in tne 
pendence of much smaller British Isles, 
these countries yet in spite of frequent Euro¬ 
pean wars, they have remained independent 
through many centuries. 

This has been possible, in part, because 
of their peculiar position. Lhe only ap- 
1 Their posi- proach to Scandinavia by land 
tion is through Lapland in Russia, 

which is so far north that it has a very cold 
climate. Thus the peninsula is almost as 
isolated from other nations as is Great 
Britain. 

The peninsula of Denmark, on the other 
hand, is partly connected with Germany (F ig. 


416). However, the islands,which are the most 
important parts of Denmark, are completely 
cut off from neighboring lands. Standing, 
as it does, at the entrance to the Baltic Sea, 
Denmark guards the approaches to this in¬ 
land sea. Both Germany and Russia have 
long coveted little Denmark on this account. 
But since neither of them has been will¬ 
ing that any other power should hold it, 
Denmark has remained free. Thus the 
very importance of its position has pro¬ 
tected it. 

The rugged surface and severe climate of 
Scandinavia have likewise protected it from 
invaders. From its southern 2 . Their rugged 
to its northern end, the penin- surface and se- 
sula is mountainous, for it is an vere chmate 
ancient mountain land (p. 281), much worn, 
and crossed by deep valleys. Some peaks 
reach an elevation of six to eight thousand 
feet ; but most of them are lower and rise 
to nearly the same height, giving to the up¬ 
land the appearance of a plateau. The 
mountains descend steeply into the ocean 
on the western side, so that, in all but the 
southern part, Norway is a narrow, moun¬ 
tainous country crossed by short streams 
flowing in deep, steep-sided valleys. 1 he 
boundary between northern Norway and 
Sweden follows the divide between the 
east- and west-flowing streams. 

Although Denmark has no mountains, 
much of the land is sandy and barren. 
That all three of the countries have a severe 
climate is shown by the fact that even 
Denmark, the most southerly, lies about as 
far north as Scotland. 

The west winds that blow from over the 
warm ocean exert a great influence here, as 
in the British Isles. Most of The agricultu- 
Norway, however, is too rug- ral districts 
ged and cold for farming. Out of a total 
area of about one hundred and twenty-four 
thousand square miles, less than four thou¬ 
sand have a soil and climate suitable to 
agriculture or pasturage. Sweden has much 
more low land, because the slope on the 
east side of the mountains is much the 








326 


EUROPE 



Industries and 
cities of Nor¬ 
way 

1. The less 

important 

industries 


longer. Yet these lowlands are so far 

O 

north, and so cut off by the mountains 
from the influence of the sea, that agricul¬ 
ture is of little importance anywhere except 
in the southern half of the country. 

The northern and western portion of the 
Danish peninsula, called Jutland, is a sandy 
waste. Therefore only the islands and the 
southeastern part of Jutland are very pro¬ 
ductive. As a result of these conditions, 
the amount of land suitable for 
agriculture in the three coun¬ 
tries is very small. The best 
sections are near together in 
southern Norway and Sweden 
and in eastern Denmark. 

Since Norway has so little 
land that is suited to farming 
or pasturage, the 
amount of stock 
and grain pro¬ 
duced is small. 

Therefore, much 
meat, flour, and 
other food must be imported. 

There are some silver and 
copper mines, but coal is 
entirely lacking. Manufactur¬ 
ing, therefore, is not greatly 
developed. Even the fine 
water power is little used, because raw prod¬ 
ucts for manufacturing are not abundant. 

On what, then, do the two million Nor¬ 
wegians depend for a living ? They have 
2 The three two very valuable resources, 
leading indus- — lumber and fish. More 
tnes than one fifth of the country is 

forest-covered, pine being the most com¬ 
mon tree. As in Maine, the rapidly flowing 
rivers are of use in moving the logs from 
the forest, and also in supplying power for 
the sawmills and planing mills. Lumber, 
wooden goods, and paper are the most im¬ 
portant exports of the country. 

Fish abound on the shallow banks along 
the irregular western coast, especially cod¬ 
fish in the neighborhood of the far northern 
Lofoden Islands. The North Sea, with its 


many fish, is also close at hand, and the 
Arctic Ocean with its seals and whales. 
Over a hundred thousand Norwegians are 
engaged in the fishing industry. Along 
the fiords every family owns a boat, and 
knows how to make one as well as how to 
use it. While the men are at sea, the 
women work the small farms or garden 
patches. 

Centuries of experience in navigating the 


Fig. 404.—Laplanders who live, mainly by fishing, in northern Norway. 

deep fiords, and in fishing, have bred in 
these people a love for the sea, which has 
given rise to a third great industry, — that 
of carrying goods for other nations. The 
timber for wooden vessels is easily supplied, 
so that they can be cheaply built. At 
present this small Norwegian nation has a 
greater number of freight vessels than any 
other European country except the United 
Kingdom. 

All these facts together explain why the 
Norwegian towns lie along the coast. In¬ 
deed, it is rare to find even a 
village in the rugged interior. 
Christiania, the capital and largest city, 
is situated at the head of a long, narrow 
bay, which makes an excellent harbor. 
This city is the principal seaport and dis- 


3. Cities 

















NORWAY , SWEDEN, AND DENMARK 


327 




Fig. 405. — A view in one of the grand fiords 
of Norway. 

tributing center for southern Norway. 
Bergen, the next city in size, is an impor¬ 
tant fishing port, like Aberdeen in Scotland, 
and Gloucester in Massachusetts. 

A sinking of the Scandinavian peninsula 
has caused the sea to enter the deep moun- 
Scenery on the tain valleys, forming many 
western coast bays, peninsulas, and islands. 
It is estimated that there are 
fully ten thousand islands 
along the coast of Norway ; 
and there are hundreds of 
bays and peninsulas. 

The long, narrow bays, inclosed 
in steep mountain walls, are called 
Jiordx (Fig. 405). Some of these 
extend fully ninety miles inland. 

The cliffs are often only barren 
rock; but here and there, where 
the slopes are' not too steep, green 
forests cover the surface. Glaciers 
are frequently in sight; and water¬ 
falls abound on every hand. In 
some places the swollen streams 
from the mountains plunge down¬ 
ward for a thousand feet or more, 
over the nearly vertical cliffs which 
bound the fiords. 


Agriculture is the leading industry of 
Sweden. Here, fertile soil, swept from 
the highlands by the glacier industries 
(Fig. 363), has been scattered of Sweden 
over the lower lands. This 1 Agriculture 
gives to the southern part of the country 
much the same appearance as New England 
presents. Oats are raised in greatest abun¬ 
dance, but rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes 
are also produced. In addition, much live 
stock is raised, and butter is exported. 

A large part of the land that is too bar¬ 
ren and rocky for farming T 

J ° 2. Lumbering 

supports a growth ot timber. 

Nearly one half the area of Sweden is 


Fig. 406._The midnight sun at North Cape, the northmost point in Norway 


Here and there, upon a level patch, a hamlet of 
fishermen's homes is seen. These hamlets are usu¬ 
ally upon the deltas of small streams and are con¬ 
nected with the outer world, and with other villages, 
by no road or pathway except the waters of the 
fiord. So isolated are these hamlets that each man 
must learn to do many things, — farm, fish, tan his 
leather, make his shoes, build his boat, his house, etc. 

Every summer hundreds of visitors, from all parts 
of the world, travel by steamer along this coast to 
enjoy the beautiful scenery. Another attraction is 
the sight of the sun at midnight (Fig. 406). At 
Bergen, Christiania, and Stockholm, which are in 
nearly the same latitude, the shortest night is less 
than six hours; at Trondhjem it is about four; and 
at Ilammerfest (Fig. 358), north of the Arctic Cir¬ 
cle, and near North Cape, the sun does not set from 
May 13 to July 29. 










328 


EUROPE 


covered with forest, and lumber is the prin¬ 
cipal export, as in Norway. Indeed, these 
two countries supply much of the lumber 
used in western Europe. 

Mining is the third important industry. 
There are silver and copper mines ; and a 
3. Mining and small amount of poor coal is 
manufacturing found in the south. Sweden 
has long been noted for its iron ore, but 
since there is no good coal for smelting it, 
there is little iron manufacturing. How¬ 
ever, some of the iron ore is smelted by the 
use of charcoal, and some by 
the use of coal brought from 
other countries. The Swedish 
iron is of such excellent quality 
that much of it is shipped to 
Sheffield, in England, for use 
in the manufacture of the 
highest grade of steel tools. 

Sweden possesses excellent 
water power for various kinds 
of manufacturing, and some 
of the numerous rivers are 
used as a source of power. 
Manufacturing, by use of 
water power, is making rapid 
progress here. 

The two principal cities — 

Stockholm, the capital (Fig. 

Cities of 40 i ), and Goth- 
Sweden enburg— are on the coast; 

but there are other small seaports and 
inland mining towns. The situation of 
Stockholm is one of great beauty. It is 
on an excellent harbor ; and is connected 
by lake, canal, and rail with the chief 
points in the country, including Gothen¬ 
burg. It is the principal distributing cen¬ 
ter for imports, while Gothenburg is the 
leading center for exports. The fact that 
the harbor of Stockholm is blocked with 
ice for four 'months each year, while that 
of Gothenburg is rarely frozen, gives the 
latter city one advantage as a shipping 
point. 

The principal foreign trade of both Nor¬ 
way and Sweden is with Great Britain. 


Give reasons for this. What must be the 
main articles of import and export ? Next 
to Great Britain comes Ger- Foreign trade 
many. Can vou suggest of Norway 
reasons for this ? ^ and Sweden 

Farming, especially dairying, is the chief 
industry of Denmark. In this small coun¬ 
try there are over a million and a half dairy 
cows and about half as many industries of 
sheep, besides large numbers Denmark 
of horses, goats, and pigs. 1 Agriculture 
Butter forms one half the exports of Den¬ 


mark. The laws of the nation discourage 
large farms, so that, as in Belgium, by care¬ 
fully cultivating a small patch of land, each 
farmer obtains the most that the soil can 
yield. 

The nearness to good fishing has natu¬ 
rally made fishing important; but the fish¬ 
eries of Scandinavia are of far 2 Fishing 
greater value than those of commerce, and 
Denmark. The Danes have mining 
much commerce, and some of the men 
serve as sailors on the ships of other na¬ 
tions, though to a far less extent than the 
Swedes and Norwegians. 

There is neither coal nor metal in the 
rocks of Denmark, so that there is no min¬ 
ing in the country. The only mineral prod- 



Fig. 407. — A view of Stockholm. 








NORWAY, SWEDEN , AND DENMARK 


329 


uct of value is clay. As in Ireland, the 
lack of coal for fuel is partly met by peat 
from the bogs and swamps. 

The position of Denmark, on one of the 
leading highways of European commerce, 
3. Manufac- has brought its people into 
tunn s close contact with the rest of 

the world. The Danes are a very highly 
educated people, and have much manufac¬ 
turing. 



Fig. 408. — A scene in Copenhagen. 

As in the case of Norway and Sweden, 
the principal foreign trade of Denmark is 

Foreign trade with Great Britain. Therefore 
and leading one might expect to find an im- 
city of Den- portant seaport on the western 
mark coast; but that coast is so low, 

and so shut in by sand bars, that good har¬ 
bors are lacking. In fact, in all Denmark 
the only harbor that admits large vessels is 
Copenhagen (meaning merchants’ harbor) 
on Seeland Island. 


In 1864 Prussia and Austria took Schleswig-Hol¬ 
stein from Denmark. This province later became 
. a part of Prussia. The Danes, how- 

Schleswig ever, never ceased to claim it. In 

oun ary the p eace Treaty at Versailles, it was 

proposed to settle this dispute by plebiscite, a vote 
of the people in the Schleswig region (Fig. 416). 

The daring Norwegian sailors of early times, called 
Norsemen , explored many lands, and had colonies even 
before other countries of northern Europe. When 


Norway and Denmark separated, these colonies 
remained a part of the latter country. Although 
some of these have been lost, Green- 
land (p. 188) and the Faroe Islands Colonies of 
are still Danish colonies, and Iceland enmark an d 
is a Danish dependency. In the eir ^ ro UC 8 
Faroes, a score of small islands north of Scotland, 
the principal products are sheep and fish. Denmark 
recently sold to the United States the Virgin Islands 
— St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St.John — in the West 
Indies. 

Iceland, which is larger than Ireland, and more 
than twice the size of Denmark, is 
an island of volcanic origin. Over a 
hundred volcanoes are found there, 
twenty-five of which have been in 
eruption in recent times. Mount 
Ilekla is one of the most noted of 
these. Destructive earthquakes are 
common, and there are also geysers 
similar to those found in our Yellow¬ 
stone National Park. The interior 
is a desert plateau, in part covered 
by glaciers, and hence not inhabited. 
Near the sea, however, there is some 
good pasture land, and the people 
are mainly engaged in raising sheep 
and in fishing. Eider down, from 
the eider duck, is one of the im¬ 
portant products of the island. The 
people are highly educated. What 
is the capital of Iceland? 

> 1. What relation have the peoples 

of these three countries to one another? 2. How 
have they been connected with us? 

J . lv0V10W 

3. How has the position of these _ .. 

countries helped to preserve their ” 
independence? 4. How have their surface and cli¬ 
mate helped toward the same end ? 5. V here are the 
principal agricultural districts? What about their 
extent? 6. What are the less important industries of 
Norway? 7. The three leading industries ? 8. Name 
and locate the cities of Norway. 9. Describe the 
scenery on the western coast. 10. AY hat about 
agriculture in Sweden ? 11. Lumbering? 12. Min¬ 

ing and manufacturing? 13. Name and locate the 
chief cities of Sweden. 14. AVhat about the foreign 
trade of Norway and Sweden? 15. YA'hat are the 
agricultural products of Denmark ? 16. State the 

principal facts about the other industries. 17. Tell 
about the foreign trade and leading city of Denmark. 

18. Name and locate the colonies of Denmark. 

19. What are their principal products? 20. State 
the principal facts about Iceland. 

1. Why should the telephone prove of special im¬ 
portance among the fishing towns Suggestions 
scattered along the coast of Nor¬ 
way ? 2. By use of a globe explain why the sun does 














CHAMOIS 


The M.N.Co.,Buffalo. 


Fig. 409. — Some of the native animals of Europe, 















331 


hit SSI a 


not set for weeks at a time at ITammerfest. 3. Why 
should Bergen be one of the rainiest cities of Europe ? 
4. Give reasons why harbors on the Baltic are blocked 
by ice much oftener than those on the western coast 
of Norway. 5. Find out about the early Norse ex¬ 
plorations of North America. 6. Hans Christian 
Andersen was a native of Denmark. What fairy 
stories do you know that were written by him? 
7. Read and tell stories of the Norse gods in old- 
time mythology. 

VII. Russia (Fig. 358) 

1. About how much of Europe is included in 
Russia (Fig. 358) ? 2. 1\ hat part of the distance 

Map Study from P ole to ec l uator included? 

3. What does this suggest concern¬ 
ing climate? 4. How much of the boundary of 


Russia is seacoast? 5. Name the seas which border 
it. 6. Name the mountains on or near the border. 
7. What portion of Russia is occupied by plains 
(Fig. 3G0) ? 8. In what directions do the large rivers 
flow? Name the three longest. 9. Is there any 
outlet from the Caspian Sea? What does that fact 
suggest? 10. Find Poland, Finland, and Lapland. 
11. What parts of Asia are under Russian control 
(Fig. 455) ? 

Russia in Europe is about three fourths 
Its Size and as large as all the other Euro¬ 
position pean countries together; and 

the Russian territory, which includes Siberia 


and other lands in Asia (p. 38G), occupies 
nearly one sixth of all the land upon the 
globe. W hat countries in North and South 
America approach European Russia in area? 
In variety of climate ? 

In spite of its vast extent, the develop¬ 
ment of Russia has been greatly hindered 
by its position, which causes a lack of 
good harbors. In this respect it contrasts 
strongly with the United States. To be 
sure, the sea forms a large portion of the 
Russian boundary; but Archangel, the 
principal port on the White Sea, is ice¬ 
bound for nine months, and Petrograd 
for four or five months, each year; 

while the entrances to the 
Baltic and Black seas are 
guarded by foreign nations. 
Why are the Caspian ports 
of no use for foreign com¬ 
merce ? 

Most of the large rivers of 
western Europe have their 
sources in the Surface 
mountains. Give features 
examples (Fig. 359). It is 
not so, however, in Russia, 
where the central divide is a 
low, hilly region, less than 
twelve hundred feet above 
sea level at its highest point. 
Except for the mountains on 
and near the border of the 
country, this is the highest 
part of Russia. 

From what has been said, it 
is easily seen that most of Russia is a re¬ 
markably level plain (Fig. 410). Since 
several of the rivers are very long, what 
must be true as to the swiftness of their 
currents? What, then, must follow as to 
their value for navigation ? What about 
the ease with which canals can be built ? 

In southeastern Russia, on the other 
hand, are the lofty Caucasus Mountains 
(Fig. 3G1), one of whose peaks, the extinct 
volcano Mount Elbruz, is the highest moun¬ 
tain in Europe. At the very base of these 



Fig. 410. —The city of Moscow, situated in the midst of the vast, level 

Russian plain. 







332 


EUROPE 


mountains, however, are broad plains bor¬ 
dering the Caspian Sea. In some places 
these plains are even below sea level. 

The great distance of Russia from the 
Atlantic Ocean, over which the west winds 
Climate blow, has had an important 

1. Temperature effect on both the temperature 
and rainfall. For example, Moscow is in 
the same latitude as Edinburgh; but while 
at Edinburgh the average temperature for 
January is 37°, at Moscow it is nearly 25° 
colder. What effect must this cold have 
upon navigation of the rivers? Notice 
which isotherms pass near Moscow and 
Edinburgh in July (Fig. 317). From this 
you see that, though the winters are colder, 
the summers are much warmer in Russia 
than in Scotland, in the same latitude. 

There is far less rainfall in Russia than in 
Scotland. In the eastern part of the coun¬ 
try there is an average of less 

2. Rainfall , , . , ° 

than twenty inches a year 

(Fig. 865). Since this amount is barely 
enough for agriculture, the crops often 
suffer, and famines follow in especially dry 
seasons. Southeastern Russia is in the belt 
of the horse latitudes, and is so far from the 
ocean that it is too arid for farming without 
irrigation. 

The Caspian Sea, into which the longest river of 
Europe pours its floods, is the largest inland sea in 
the world. In spite of the enormous volume of 
water which enters this sea, the evaporation in that 
dry climate has caused it to shrink in size until it is 
no longer connected with the ocean. The same is 
true of the Aral Sea (Fig. 455). There is so much 
evaporation in this region that the surface of the 
Caspian Sea is eighty-five feet below sea level. 


Russia may be divided into several belts, 
according to climate. In the north are the 
3. Climatic frozen tundras, even in summer 
belts too cold for agriculture. The 

(1) Tundras scattered Laplanders, who live 
upon the tundras, have habits resembling 
those of the Eskimos. 

South of the tundra belt the warmer 

„ climate permits the growth of 

(2) Forests ~ ° , 

forests , including such trees 

as pine, fir, oak, beech, and birch. Some 


of this timber has been cut away, and farms 
have taken the place of forests; but much 
woodland still remains. 

The forest belt is gradually replaced on 
the south by open, grass-covered plains 
similar to those of the central ^ Grass 
and western parts of the United plains and arid 
States. This is the best agri- * te PP es 
cultural region of Russia, and here grains 
are raised in enormous quantities, especially 
in the “black earth ” section where the soil 
is fine-grained, black, and very fertile. The 
climate of the grassy plains gradually be¬ 
comes more arid toward the south and east, 
until on the steppes , which resemble our 
Western arid lands, farming without irriga¬ 
tion is impossible. 

In the extreme southern part of Russia, 
near the Caucasus Mountains, there is abun¬ 
dant rainfall; and, being so ( 4 ) The Cauca- 
far south, the crops of warm sus re ff ion 
temperate climates are raised, but around 
the Caspian Sea most of the land is a barren 
desert. 

The plains of Russia have offered no bar¬ 
rier to invasion. Therefore, many differ¬ 
ent peoples have come to this People 
region from various directions, l. Races and 
and, although still considered languages 
a part of Russia, many of these races have 
recently declared their independence of 
Russian rule. Name these divisions (Fig. 
358). Most of these belong to the white 
race, though to a different division from 
the German and British peoples. These 
Russians are Slavs, while the inhabitants 
of Germany, Scandinavia, and the British 
Isles belong to the Teutonic division of the 
white race. Russia contains more than 
one half of all the Jews in the world, or 
about 5,000,000. They are most numer¬ 
ous in the western and southwestern 
parts of the country. The Cossacks, num¬ 
bering about 3,000,000, form a separate di¬ 
vision. Many of them are called Don Cos¬ 
sacks, because they live on the Don River. 
They are a very hardy, cruel, and dar¬ 
ing race of horsemen and warriors. They 



RUSSIA 


333 



rebelled and deposed their ruler. The revo¬ 
lutionary government that was set up when 
the old government fell, lasted but a few 
months. Since that time there has been 
no stable government. 

Nearly a third of European Russia is 
forest-covered; and, as in Norway (p. 320), 
timber is one of the leading Lumbering 
resources. Many fur-bearing and fishing 
animals live in the forest, and Russia, like 
Canada, exports large numbers of valuable 
furs. 

Fishing is an important industry in Rus¬ 
sian waters, and the varieties of 
fish resemble those of Norway 
and Sweden. There is a special 
demand for fish, owing to the 
number of fast days kept by 
the Graeco-Russian Church, to 
which the majority of Russians 
belong. 

Both in the forest region and 
on the open plains to the south, 
there is extensive Agriculture 
agriculture. Fully 1 . Farming 
nine tenths of the people are 
supported by farming, which 
shows that Russia is mainly an 
agricultural country. 

The most important crops are 
rye, wheat, barley, and oats. 
In normal times Russia ranks next to the 
United States among the grain-producing 
countries of the world, and wheat is one of 
its principal exports. Another important 
crop is hay; and potatoes, sugar beets, and 
flax are extensively raised in the cool tem¬ 
perate climate. In southern Russia the 
warm climate permits the culture of grapes, 
tobacco, and corn; and south of the Cau¬ 
casus even olives and cotton are grown. 

On the grazing lands of the arid steppes 
many sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. 
The nomadic herdsmen still g Grazing 
retain many of the customs of 
the shepherds and herders of Bible time , 
who dwelt farther south in Asia. Tins is 
the home of the Cossacks , a people of Tartar 


are called good soldiers for they have often 
been successful in battle. 

In former centuries, while other parts of 
Europe were advancing in civilization, 
Russia was still being raided by hordes of 
outsiders. 1 he country was so far away 

2. Civilization western Europe that it 

felt little influence from the 
growing civilization of the West. More¬ 
over, approach by water was then even more 
difficult than now, for at that time the only 
seacoast that Russia owned was on the 
Arctic Ocean. It was not until the time of 


Fig. 411. — A family of Russian peasants. 

Peter the Great (1682-1725) that Russia 
began to learn the lessons of civilization 
from other European nations. 

These facts help to explain why Russia is 
so slightly advanced in some directions. 
While the common people of other European 
nations were demanding greater liberty, and 
were steadily gaining education, the masses 
of the Russians were kept in poverty and 
ignorance. They were mere serfs, who were 
little better than slaves to their lords, the 
nobles. The serfs were freed in the middle 
of the last century ; but, even now, there is 
little education for the masses. 

Until 1917, Russia was ruled by an ab¬ 
solute monarch, called the 
overnment Q zar% j n that year the people 











334 


EUROPE 



Fig. 412. — Harvesting wheat with camels in southeastern Russia. 



Mining 


descent noted for their skill as horsemen 
and for their fierce bravery. 

Some parts of Russia contain mineral de¬ 
posits of great value. In the Ural Moun¬ 
tains, for example, 
are gold, silver, 
copper, and platinum, besides 
some precious stones and graph¬ 
ite, or “ black lead,” used in 
lead pencils. Coal and iron are 
mined in several parts of Russia 
(Fig. 362), and each year the 
amount is increasing. As in 
Great Britain, some of the iron 
ore is so near coal and limestone 
that it is easily smelted. 

Russia ranks next to the 
United States in the production 
of petroleum. This oil is found 
in several places, especially 
about Baku on the Caspian Sea. 

Large quantities are consumed as 
fuel for steamers on the Caspian 
and Volga ; and, as in California, 
the oil is used in locomotives. 


Numerous factories have recently been 
started in Russia, but most of 
the manufacturing is still done 
by hand, in the homes of the 


Manufacturing 

workmen. 


Fig. 413.— A Russian peasant girl harvesting wheat by hand. 







RUSSIA 


335 



What a contrast to the United States and to 
Great .Britain! Distilling' and brewing, 
cotton manufacturing and sugar refining, are 
the principal forms of manufacturing car¬ 
ried on in factories; flour mills, woolen and 


railway center of Russia as Madrid is of 
Spain, and for the same reason. State this 
reason (p. 322). Unlike Madrid, the land 
round about the city is fertile and densely 
populated. All these advantages have made 
Moscow one of the chief manu¬ 
facturing centers of the country. 

Moscow is adorned with royal palaces, 
government buildings, and churches (Fig. 
414). It is the holy city of Russia, being 
the center of the Graeco-Russian Church. 
1 he University of Moscow, the largest in 
the land, is attended by about four thou¬ 
sand students. 

East of Moscow, on the Volga River, 
is Nizhni Novgorod, renowned for its 
yearly fairs. For centuries a great trade 
center has been needed, somewhere in this 
vicinity, for the exchange of Asiatic and 
Russian products. This city has such 
excellent water connections that it has 
served as that center. On the map (Fig. 
358) point out these connections. The 
fairs, held in August and September, were 
the greatest in Europe, and attracted as 
many as two hundred thousand stran¬ 
gers each year. In a single season goods 
were exchanged to the value of nearly 
$200,000,000, and prices were fixed on crops 
and other materials for the coming yeai\ 

While the two cities just de¬ 

scribed are very old, their position 

in the interior is not 
f lie 2. Petrograd 

favorable tor com¬ 
merce with distant nations. It was this 
fact that led Peter the Great, in 1703, 
to found Petrograd at the head of 
the Gulf of Finland. The site chosen is 
very marshy, and the climate is cold, 
foggy, and unhealthful. Moreover, the 

arm of the sea on which the city is 
located is so shallow that a ship canal 
twenty miles in length has been necessary 
in order to connect it with the deeper 
water farther west. In addition, the har¬ 
bor is ice-bound for more than four months 
each year. 

Yet, in spite of all these disadvantages, 
Petrograd is the largest city in Rus¬ 
sia, and the fifth in size in Europe. This 

growth is partly due to the need of a sea- 


Fig. 414. — A Grajco-Russian cliureh iu Moscow. 

linen factories, and iron works rank next in 
importance. What raw products of Russia 
encourage these industries? 

For a long time the principal cities of 
Russia were situated far in the interior. 
Principal cities Ibis clearly shows liow^ little 
l. Moscow and Russia was in touch with other 
Nizhni Novgorod countries. For example, Mos¬ 
cow, the second city in size, and once the 
capital of the empire, is located almost in 
the center of the realm, as Madrid is in 
Spain. The point was well chosen, because 
rivers, which could easily be connected by 
canals, diverge from this section in all di¬ 
rections. By the introduction of railways 
the advantage of this central location was 
so increased that Moscow is now the leading 




















336 


EUROPE 



port in this section. Riga on the Gulf of 
Riga has likewise much shipping. 

New Countries of Russia 

Bordering on the Baltic Sea, in the re¬ 
gion surrounding Riga, are three countries, 
formerly provinces of the Russian Empire, 


Fig. 415. — A Russian sleigh in Petrograd. 

that may be partly or completely incle- 
B a iti c pendent. They are Esthonia, 

Countries Latvia of which Riga is the 
capital, and Lithuania in which Vilna is 
an important center. Locate these coun¬ 
tries on the map (Fig. 358). 

As a result of the war two independent 
countries have been formed wholly, or in 

, lars^e part, from Russia. The 

Finland 6 1 \ ■ t?- i j 

more northern is b inland, a 

country having about 125,000 square miles 

and a population of more than 3,000,000. 

Its principal industry is farming, although 

a very small part of the land can be tilled. 

The people are among the most intelli¬ 
gent of all Russia. They have established 
a republic with Helsingfors, the largest 
city, as the capital. 

Poland is also a republic, containing 
about 80,000 square miles and a population 
of 20,000,000 or more. About one half of 


Poland 


its area was taken from Russia, and the 
rest from Germany and Austria. Poland 
contains an abundance of coal, 
and is one of the prominent 
manufacturing centers of Europe. War¬ 
saw, the capital, has almost a million in¬ 
habitants, and Lodz nearly half as many. 

The formation of this region 
into an independent country 
caused a great loss to each of 
the three nations to which it 
belonged. 

Ukraine, bordering the Black 
Sea, hopes to be a third repub¬ 
lic formed, from 
Russian territory. 

How does it compare in area 
with Poland ? Note how much 
of the Black Sea coast it in¬ 
cludes. This has been one of 
the leading farming sections of 
Russia, noted particularly for 
wheat. Odessa and Kief are 
the principal cities, the former 
noted as a center for flour 
mills and for shipment of 
wheat abroad. It is the most 
important port on the Black Sea. 


Ukraine 


1. Show how large Russia is. 2. What about 
its harbors? 3. Describe its surface. 4. What 
can you say about the temperature? 

5. The rainfall? 6. Into what cli- ev1 ®^ 
matic belts can the country be ” Ues 10ns 
divided? 7. What different races are found 
among the Russians, and how many languages 
are spoken by them? 8. Why have they not ad¬ 
vanced further? 9. What is the condition of the 
government? 10. Tell about lumbering and fish¬ 
ing. 11. What are the agricultural products? 
12. The mineral products? 13. What is the con¬ 
dition of manufacturing? 14. Locate and state 
the principal facts about Moscow and Nizhni 
Novgorod. 15. Petrograd and Riga. 16. Finland. 
17. Poland. 18. Ukraine. 

1. Compare the area of the Caspian Sea with 
that of Lake Superior. 2. What must be some of 
the difficulties connected with building „ 
good wagon roads in southern Russia? u ££ es 10ns 
3. What did Kosciusko, the Pole, do to make his 
name memorable to Americans ? 4. Have you read 
the story of Thaddeus of Warsaw? If so, what can 







GERMANY 


337 


you tell about it? 5. Read how Peter the Great 
wandered through European countries, as a com¬ 
mon workman, in order to learn Western customs. 
6. Make a sketch map of Russia, with principal rivers 
and cities. 7. Compare Russia with the United 
States in area and population (Appendix, pp. 451 
and 453); also in degrees of latitude contained. 

VIII. Germany 

1. Compare the latitude of Berlin with that of 
London (Fig. 358). 2. Of New York. 3. Estimate 

__ _. , the greatest length of Germany from 

a P u 7 east wes t (Fig. 416); from north 
to south. 4. How does it compare in size with the 
British Isles? With Russia? 5. What parts of the 
boundary are natural? 6. Point out the principal 
rivers. In what direction do they flow ? 7. Is most 
of the surface plain or mountainous (Fig. 359)? 
Where are the mountains? 8. What facts do you 
notice about the coast line? 9. Is the North Sea, 
or the Baltic, the most desirable place for seaports ? 
Why? 

The position of the German nation is 
strikingly different from that of Great 
Position, and Britain. Only about one third 
its advantages of its boundary is water, while 
it borders upon seven independent countries, 
besides Luxemburg (p. 311). What are 
their names ? 

The location of the British Isles is favor¬ 
able for world commerce, because densely 
populated Europe lies near at hand on one 
side, while the New World lies across the 
ocean on the other side. Germany also has 
great advantages in her location. Because 
it is so central, most of the markets of the 
continent are at her very doors, while two 
of her principal ports, Hamburg and Bre¬ 
men, face Great Britain and the west. 
Name some of the large European cities 
(Fig. 358) that can be quickly reached from 
Germany. In these days of railways, Ger¬ 
many’s central position is superior to that 
of England for European trade. 

It required a long struggle to bring under 
one rule the various people living within 
Formation of the present boundaries of Ger- 
the German many. For centuries there 
Empire were many separate states in 

central Europe with a German-speaking 
population; and, although they were loosely 


held together by a confederation, they were 
often at war with one another. Finally, in 
1871, under the leadership of Prussia, most 
of them were brought together under one 
government, called the German Empire. 
It contained twenty-five states in all, Prussia 
being the largest. In fact, it was much 
larger, both in area and population, than all 
the other twenty-four together, and its king 
was, by law, the Emperor of Germany. 
These facts explain why Prussia is so often 
mentioned in place of Germany. 

The German Empire lasted from 1871 to 
1918, nearly fifty years. It was one of the 
most powerful nations that Recent change 
ever existed when it started in the govern- 
out to conquer the world in ment 
1914. The unity throughout the realm 
seemed almost complete, and the support 
that the people gave to the government in 
its declaration of war was enthusiastic, for 
they foresaw a quick victory, to be followed 
by a fabulous increase in power and wealth. 
When, instead, complete defeat followed, 
accompanied by awful debt, suffering, and 
disgrace, the strain on the government be¬ 
came too great, and it collapsed. Both the 
Emperor and the Crown Prince fled to Hol¬ 
land, rather than stay and face the people ; 
and they soon after renounced all right to 
the throne. Then a republic was imme¬ 
diately formed. 

When the war began, the empire con¬ 
tained about 209,000 square miles, and a pop¬ 
ulation of nearly 65,000,000. Some 0 f the 
Now the area does not greatly losses from 
exceed 170,000 square miles, the war 
and the population 55,000,000. Perhaps the 
greatest loss in territory was that of Alsace 
and Lorraine, in which Strassburg and 
Metz are situated, and which is now a part 
of France. It contained the best iron mines 
in Germany, and without them her manufac¬ 
turing in the future must be much reduced. 
Her greatest territorial loss, however, was in 
the east, the part of the empire that was 
surrendered to Poland. East Prussia, also, 
is separated from the main part of Germany, 



10 ° 


30° 



V 

CENTRAL EUROPE 

Scale of Miles 


50 100 

Cities with over 1.000,000_Berlin 

cities with 200,000 to l.OQO.ooo-Naples 

Cities with 100,000 to 200,000--Venice 

Smaller Places- -r - r -Erfurt 

Capitals with less than 100,000-BERNE 

Capitals of Countries Other Cities o 

— 1 y '^ Nationality to be decided by plebiscite _ □ 

Konigsberg ! J Boundariee not yet decided -H-- 

3 P11 R-S1A/T 1 X Minsk 



4 4t ,. \ c a e c h v o ~ 

3 rassb aHeS , Stuttgart^ 

| / Wblhau 

—« 

*2kp~, A 

/Vs,. V A 


:sbur s °l oM'finij 

i"»V J /.-y 

L^ G en e p a / ? /. L\( ) 

^ \ ojvr 


40 


G^Cetinje 

o 


<r> 




S £■ ^ 


O 


Africa) 


10 ° 





Messina\ 


Corfi^j^ 


IONIAN SEA 


Trikala 



Af E D . I 

^ MALTA 
(fir.) 


JMt.Etna 

[Catania 


IONIAN 

ISLANDS 


T E R R A N E 





East 


from 


1 


iV 


0 


KalamataV 

C.Matapan < 


•<? 


o 


Greenwich 


# U 

Williams EogrATjng Co., N. Y. 




FIG. 416. Central Europe according to the Peace Treaties of 1919. 














































































GERMANY 


339 



Fig. 417. —The building in Berlin where the German Parliament met. 


made such preparation to some extent ; for 
it has been clear that a dispute might arise 
at any time that would need to be settled 
by force, and the nation that is most fully 
prepared enjoys a great advantage. Really 
anticipating war more than the other coun¬ 
tries, Germany planned to secure this 
advantage. For further history of her 
“militarism,” see pages 414-423. 

For such reasons, all able-bodied young men in 
Germany were required to devote usually two full 
years, and parts of several following years, to active 
military training. Most of them entered the service 
at about the age of twenty; and as some five hun¬ 
dred thousand men fit for military service reached 
that age every-year, one can gain an idea as to what 
such preparation cost. 

During times of peace, the German army con¬ 
tained nearly six hundred thousand soldiers; and the 
German navy called for many men besides. All 
these men were, for the time being, withdrawn from 


mountains of Great Britain 
and New England. It is, in 
fact, a somewhat irregular plateau, from 
one to two thousand feet in height, with 
some ranges rising high enough to be called 
mountains (Fig. 419). Only in the ex¬ 
treme south, on the edge of the Alps, is 
a great altitude reached. Here one peak 
rises nearly ten thousand feet above sea 
level. 

Northern Germany, on the other hand, 

is a lowland whose elevation is rarely more 

than six hundred feet. This 
, • i • n -2. The low- 

iowland, mainly in Prussia, lands 

broadens toward the east until 

it merges into the plains of Russia. In 

the neighborhood of Holland this plain is 

very low and flat (Fig. 420); but in 

most places its surface is rolling, owing 

partly to the irregular deposits left by the 

Great Glacier. 


Germany includes two quite 
different kinds of land. The 
southern section surface 
is mainly a re- features 
gion of ancient 1. The high- 
mountains, worn lands 
down to low relief like the 


which is another serious misfortune. In 
order that Poland might have free access 
to the Baltic, Danzig has been declared a 
free city, independent of Germany. Finally, 
Germany has been deprived of all her col¬ 
onies. 

Expecting a great war, preparation for 
war has always been one of 
fo^war tl0D Germany’s leading occupations. 

Each of the Great Powers has 


the industries, so that the nation lost the fruits of 
their labor for that period. What a great disadvan¬ 
tage to any country! 

Strong forts were built near the boundary, as at 
Cologne, Metz, and Strassburg on the French side, 
and Konigsberg and Posen near Russia. Forts are 
also numerous in the neighborhood of the great in¬ 
terior cities, and at other important points. 

Germany has forced other European nations 
to make similar preparations. As already stated 
(p. 302), the British, having no close neighbors, 
rely mainly upon their powerful navy for defense. 

Every one of the Great Powers de¬ 
mands the service of many men, and 
expends large sums of money in 
preparation for war. Even before 
1914, this w r as one of the chief occu¬ 
pations of Europe. 

By the Treaty of Peace (1919) 
Germany lost her principal for¬ 
tresses, and she is prevented from 
building fortifications on the east 
bank of the Rhine (Fig. 390). 



























FIG. 418. 





















































































GERMANY 


341 



Fig. 419. — A view in the Black Forest, one of the low mountain regions of southern Germany. 


Most of the drainage of Germany is 
northward into the North and Baltic 

_ ^ . seas. Name and trace the 

3. Drainage , . . 

courses ot tour large rivers 

which flow northward. What river has 

some of its head-waters in the highland 
region of southern Germany, then crosses 
Austria and finally enters the Black Sea? 

Note the number of degrees 
of latitude included in Germany. 

Climate One might expect a 

1. Temperature warmer climate in 
the south than in the north ; but 
on account of its elevation, the 
southern plateau is about as cold 
in winter as the northern low¬ 
land. In summer, on the other 
hand, the southern part, being 
nearer the interior of the conti¬ 
nent, is warmer than the north¬ 
ern. There are some low, partly 
inclosed valleys in the south, how¬ 
ever, where the climate in winter 
as well as in summer is warmer 
than that of the northern plains. 


The influence of the warm waters of the ocean is 
very well shown along the coast. For example, the 
ports of the North Sea, being most open to the ocean, 
are almost always free from ice; but the Baltic ports, 
being cut off so completely from the open ocean, are 
frozen over during a part of the winter. The farther 
east they lie, the longer their trade is interrupted by 
the ice. What must be some of the results of this 
fact? 



Fig. 420. —A view on the low level plain of north Germany. 













342 


EUROPE 



There is ample rainfall for agriculture in 
all parts of the empire. It is true that 
there is less rain than in east¬ 
ern United States; but in the 
cooler summer climate of Germany not so 
much is needed by plants, because there is 
less evaporation. In the United States, 
east of the Mississippi, there is an average 
annual rainfall of about forty inches; but 


The Germans bestow almost as much care 

upon their forests as upon their farm lands. 

They allow only as much timber 

i.i • 2. Care of the 

to be cut each year as is grown forests 

in the same time; and a man 
may not at will destroy a wood that he him¬ 
self owns. Young trees are planted as the 
older trees are removed, and the forests are 
carefully protected from damage by fire, 
theft, or other means. On 
account of the value of wood 
it is used very sparingly, and 
substitutes for it are found, as 
far as possible; for example, 
willow baskets in place of 
wooden boxes. In spite of 
such thrift, much timber is 
imported from Sweden and 
Russia. 


Fig. 421. — Vineyards on the steep slope of the Rhine Valley near Bingen. 
The land is terraced here and the small patches of vineyard are inclosed 
within walls of rock. 


in Germany there are only twenty-eight 
inches in the west, and twenty inches in 
the east, near the Russian border. 

There are several low mountain areas in 
Germany where the soil is too poor for 
farming, but where the slopes 
are not too steep, or cold, for 
forest growth. Indeed, the Ger¬ 
man word for woods ( wald ) is 
a part of some of the mountain names, 


Lumbering 

1. Location 
and extent of 
the forests 


as in Schwartzwald, which means Black 
Forest (Fig. 419). Forests also cover 
some of the lowlands where the soil is 
poor. All together about one fourth of 
the surface of the empire is covered with 
trees. 


On the whole, Germany has 
not a fertile soil; but the farm 
products are very Agriculture 
extensive, be- i its impor- 
cause the people tance 
are both industrious and in¬ 
telligent, and their method of 
cultivating the soil is excellent. 
What countries may well be 
contrasted with Germany in 
this respect ? More than one 
third of the German people 
depend for their living upon agriculture, 
the leading industry of the nation. 

Germany is one of the most important 
grain-producing countries of Europe; but 
here rye takes the place of 
wheat as the principal grain. 

Potatoes, introduced from America, are 
raised in such quantities that, like rye, they 
form one of the principal foods. These 
two crops are extensively cultivated, both 
because they are cheap foods, and because 
they flourish in a light soil and a cool 
summer climate. Sugar beets, hay, oats, 
and barley are other important crops of the 
northern plains, while in the valley of the 
Rhine, and in other warm, sheltered valleys 


2. Farm crops 













GERMANY 


343 


3. Live stock 


of the south, hops, tobacco, and grapes are 
raised in large quantities (Fig. 421). 

Since much of the lowland is too sandy for 
cultivation, and much of the highland too 
rugged, it is not surprising that 
one sixth of all the surface is 
natural pasture. Cattle for beef and for dairy 
purposes are kept in nearly all parts of the 
country, hut especially in the damper cli¬ 
mate of the west. Largely because wool can 
be imported so cheaply, the raising of sheep 
in Germany is becoming of less importance. 
Swine raising, on the other hand, is increas¬ 
ing because of the cheap feed supplied by 
the refuse from the beet-sugar factories. 

Although Germany raises a great quantity 
of food, her population, like that of England, 
is so dense that she cannot produce all that 
she needs. Much wheat and meat must 
therefore be imported. 

Next to the United Kingdom, Germany 
is the greatest mining country of Europe; 

. and, as in Great Britain, her 

Mining , . , , 

most valuable minerals, coal 

and iron, often occur in the same region. 
Germany reminds us of our own country in 
the wide distribution of her coal beds. The 
coal fields that were found in northeastern 
France and Belgium (Fig. 362) extend into 
Germany along the Belgian and French 
frontier; and from this region eastward to 
the Russian border there are several impor¬ 
tant coal fields. 


Among the other valuable mineral products are 
lead, copper, silver, zinc, and salt. Nearly half the 
silver mined in Europe comes from Germany; and 
Belgium and Germany together produce more zinc 
than all the rest of the world. There are immense 
salt mines, as at Stassfurt, from which are obtained 
not only table salt, but products used in the manu¬ 
facture of soap, in dyeing, bleaching, glass making, 
and calico printing. 

The Germans make use of thoroughly scientific 
methods in their mining work ; and from them other 
nations have learned many of the methods used in 
reducing ores to metal. 


From the above facts we may expect to 
find Germany an important manufacturing 
country, with her manufacturing centers 


well distributed. Explain why. About 
a third of the people are engaged in 
manufacturing, and before the Manufacturing 
World War Germany advanced i its impor- 
very rapidly in this industry. tan ce 
Among the European countries she ranked 
next to the United Kingdom in the quantity 
and excellence of her goods. 



Fig. 422. — Storks in Strassburg, where they build 
their nests on the chimney tops. 

The position of the coal and iron mines 
accounts for the location of the principal 
centers for iron manufacturing. z . Leading 
The busiest section is along centers of manu- 
the Rhine, in the vicinity of facturln £ 
Cologne ; and this region may well he 
compared with northern England in the 
extent of its industries. A second center is 
round about Dresden and Chemnitz ; and 
a third is at Breslau in the southeastern 
corner of the country. 

The map (Fig. 416) shows no cities 
south of Breslau ; yet this is a busy 







344 


EUROPE 



manufacturing region. Cities are lacking 
here because the people carry on the manu- 


3. Leading 
kinds of manu¬ 
facturing 

(1) Textile and 
iron goods 


homes, 
fore, al- 


facturing mainly in their own 
instead of in factories. There- 
though villages stretch for 
miles along the valleys, 
there are no large towns. 

As in several other coun¬ 
tries so far studied, the 
textile indus¬ 
tries are best 
developed 
near the coal 
fields. There¬ 
fore the sections men¬ 
tioned above are noted 
for cotton, woolen, and 
silk factories, as well as 
for iron. All the cotton 
and silk, and much of 
the wool, for these 
textile industries has 
to come from abroad. 

But the people south 
of Breslau make use 
largely of raw ma¬ 
terials raised near by, spinning and weav 


Fig. 423. — A German peasant girl spinning wool. 


The extensive forests partly account for a third 
occupation in many sections; namely, the manufac¬ 
ture of furniture, paper, and other 
materials made of wood. Woodcarv- \ ^ Lumber and 
mg is an important industry m the 

Black Forest and other parts of 
Germany. 

The manufacture of spirituous 
liquors is another prominent Ger¬ 
man industry. A 

portion of (3) Bevera aes 
the immense potato crop, 
and also some of the 
beets, are made into 
spirits. But beer, in the 
manufacture of which 
barley and hops are used, 
is made in much greater 
quantities. From the 
grapes of southern Ger¬ 
many much wine is pro¬ 
duced, though not nearly 
so much as in France. 

Germany is also a 
great sugar-manufac- 
t u r i n g 
nation. 

Until a few 
ago nearly all 
was obtained 
but this was changed 


sugar 


cane 


(4) Beet sugar 


years 

sugar 

from 

when 


ing flax and wool and making lace. 


German chemists found a means of obtain¬ 



Fig. 424. — A village in the Hartz Mountains, where the people carve articles 

of wood in their homes. 


ing sugar from beets. By im¬ 
proving the process, and by 
developing the beets until 
they contained more sugar, 
the industries of sugar-beet 
raising, and the refining of 
beet-root sugar, have been 
made possible. This industry 
has now spread to many coun¬ 
tries, including the United 
States. 

Each year this kind of sugar has 
been proving a greater rival to sugar 
cane, until now a large part of the 
sugar used in Europe, and much of 
that consumed in North America, is 
obtained from sugar beets. One 
important reason why this industry 
has thrived is that sugar beets grow 
in a cool temperate climate, w r here 
population is dense and markets are 










GERMANY 


345 


numerous. How is the case different with sugar 
cane ? Formerly Germany had to rely upon foreign¬ 
ers for sugar ; but with the growth of this industry, 
beet sugar has not only supplied all the needs at 
home, but has even become one of the leading Ger- 
man exports. 


(2) Education 


In the half century before 1014 no other 
Germany’s European country grew as 
rapid advance rapidly as Germany. There 

1. Nature of was a large increase in popu- 
the advance lation, a great advance in in¬ 
dustry, and a corresponding gain in wealth. 

One cause for this advance is the strong 
central government established in 1871. 

2. Reasons for This CaUSed the P e0 P le to for " 

it get the petty jealousies that 

(1) The govern- had long checked the growth 
of industries, and led them to 
develop their resources. What was the 
danger from such a government ? 

The government’s treatment of education 
has also been of great importance. Every 
German child is forced by law 
to attend school; and care¬ 
ful attention is given to the study of the 
industries, foreign products, foreign lan¬ 
guages, etc. In the higher commercial and 
technical schools young men are given ex¬ 
cellent training for business. The misuse 
of the schools, however, to teach militarism 
has proved the undoing of the German people. 

The value of scientific work has been 
recognized and encouraged by the govern¬ 
ment ; and the wonderful development of 
the sugar industry, the mines, and the 
factories since 1871 was the natural result 
of this policy. Not many years ago much 
of the manufacturing was done by hand; 
but now factories are found on every side, 
and in 1914 Germany was one of the three 
leading manufacturing nations of the world. 
Name the other two. 

Great advance has been made in trans¬ 
portation. The rivers and harbors have been 
(3) Improve- made more useful; canals have 
ment in trans- been extended over much of 
portation the coun t r y; and German 

steamship lines have been established to 


various parts of the world. There is now 
an extensive system of railways, reaching 
to all parts of the empire, and connecting 
Germany with other European countries. 
The piercing of the Alps by tunnels, thus 
improving the connection with the Mediter¬ 
ranean, has also been of advantage. 

The establishment of colonies was a 


fourth important aid to Germany’s growth 
Until 1914 Germany controlled 
extensive areas in the island 
of New Guinea, north of Aus¬ 
tralia, and in both East and 
West Africa, as well as smaller 


(4) Establish¬ 
ment of colo¬ 
nies; and inter¬ 
est of German 
emigrants 


colonies elsewhere (Fig. 418). These had 
great influence on Germany, both because 
they have furnished homes for emigrants 
from crowded parts of the home country, 
and because they have brought much trade 
to Germany. 

Many more Germans have emigrated to 
various parts of the New World. Over 
five million have come to the United States 
within the last seventy-five years, while the 
British Isles have sent us about seven mil¬ 
lion. Many of the German emigrants to 
these other countries have kept up trade 
with the land from which they came and 
increased the commerce of Germany. 

Naturally, in a country making such rapid 
advances, the cities have grown also, as has 
been the case in the United principal cities 
States. In the twenty years i. Their rapid 
between 1870 and 1890, for growth 
example, Berlin had a more rapid growth 
than New York, and added as many new 
residents as Chicago. In 1875 Boston had 
almost a hundred thousand more people 
than Hamburg ; but now Hamburg has over 
one hundred and seventy-one thousand more 
than Boston. Other German cities also 
rapidly increased in size. 

The position of Berlin, on the small 
Spree River (Fig. 425) on the North Ger¬ 
man plain, midway between the 2. Berlin 
coast and the highlands, may (1) Its location 
not at first seem a very favorable one. 
However, the Oder, a large river, and some 



340 


EUROPE 




Canal 


1i^§§#s< x ’ 

\ -J SOjl O'-/V ' J 'V.aY, 

MiKiaR 
4^®J«T PS 


HEIDE^ 


JCNOFERN 


ftodjitS V 

I , "-VA 


iou>li»ssi 
I? -“.*51 ]3 3 


giragp 

i J is — « /} i 


BERLIN 


fechtcsyrii 

V 


Liifcck, 

' /<<n/ y 


^/Itzeboe 


ostbck\ ^ 
\ Dcnihi 


Lubeck 


j\4 [Bremer 
haven 


Stettin 


’Neustrelh 


\VitteubcrJi 


Stendal 


of the tributaries of the Elbe approach so 
near each other in this section that they 
have easily been connected by canal. Thus, 


Berlin has water connection with both 
Hamburg and Stettin, two important 
seaports, and with all parts of these two 
river systems. This is a very important 


aid in bringing fuel, food, and raw 
materials for manufacture, and in taking 
away manufactured articles. 

Observe also (Fig. 
416) that Berlin lies on 
the direct route from 
Hamburg to Breslau, 
and from Stettin to 
Leipzig, and that other 
large cities surround it. 
It is, moreover, on the 
route of several of the 
chief European railways, 
and is therefore one of 
the leading railway cen¬ 
ters of the continent. 

With such excellent 
connections, by water 
and by rail, (2) its impor- 
Berlin has tance 
become one of the prin¬ 
cipal manufacturing 
cities of the country. 
Fully half the residents 
are supported by manu¬ 
facturing, which includes 
brewing, the making of 
fancy articles, clothing, 
machinery, etc. Besides 
being the capital of 
Prussia and of the Ger¬ 
man nation, Berlin is 
the center of German 
banking. It is noted 
for its art and music, 
and for its great univer¬ 
sity, the largest in the 
country. There are a 
number of suburbs, one 
being Potsdam (Fig. 
425), the German “ Ver¬ 
sailles," in which are 
located several of the 
former royal palaces. 
Among the cities not far 
from Berlin is Leipzig, the dtiefnear 
tilth in size in Germany. It Berlin 
is situated at the junction of (l) Leipzig 


. -s\ .i 

RUG^No. / 


\OIl 111 


SKA 




Railroads __ 

Steamship Lines ...... 

Canals — 

0 IC 20 30 40 50 


Fig. 425. — A section of Germany as it was before the World War. 

Berlin and vicinity. 












































GERMAN T 


347 





two small streams, at a point where roads 
from the highland meet those from the low¬ 
land. Formerly it was at the crossing of 
important wagon roads, and now it has be¬ 
come a railway center. Owing to its 
favorable position, Leipzig is, next to 
Berlin, the most important trade center of 
Germany. One of its leading articles of 
commerce is fur. It is the seat of a noted 
university, and a center for 
the German book trade. 

Dresden, southeast of Leip¬ 
zig, is noted for its art museum 
(Fig. 426), which 
rivals the Louvre 
of Paris. The beautiful 
Dresden china is made in this 
vicinity, and in recent years 
much manufacturing has de¬ 
veloped ; for Dresden is situ¬ 
ated on the navigable Elbe and 
has coal near at hand. It 
is, moreover, the capital of 
Saxony, the most densely 
settled German state. 


(2) Dresden 


bronze, gold, silver, glass painting, and 
porcelain manufacturing. 

North of Munich, on the road to Berlin, 
is Nuremberg. This quaint city was 
famous in former centuries for its art and 
architecture, and many of its treasures are 
still carefully preserved. At present it is 
an important center for the manufacture of 
toys. 


Chemnitz, near by, has impor¬ 
tant textile industries. Halle and 
... . Magdeburg, far- Fig. 42G. — The 

Halle, and ther to the north- 

Magdeburg west, and in the center of the chief 
beet-growing section, are extensively 
engaged in the manufacture of sugar. 

Breslau, a city not much smaller than Leipzig, 
is on the Oder, a navigable river. It has the advan- 
. tage of being near a very rich coal 

and iron field, and is, therefore, a 
great manufacturing center. Its situation, near the 
Polish frontier, makes it an important market for 
eastern and central Europe. 

In the highland of South Germany is 
Munich, the capital of the kingdom of 
4. Munich and Bavaria,. Although so fai to 
Nuremberg the south, and so distant from 
coal, Munich is the third city in size in the 
realm. It is on the trade routes from Ger¬ 
many to Italy and to Austria, and is accord¬ 
ingly an important railway center. Much 
of its renown is due to its art collections 
and its art industries, such as work in 


Dresden Art Museum which contains many treasures of art. 

Hamburg, which has grown rapidly in 

population, is the second city in Germany 

and the most important sea- 

,, ,. , ^ ri 5. Seaports 

port on the continent. 1 lie 

reasons for this are clear when it is known 
that the estuary of the Elbe (Fig. 425) 
makes an excellent harbor, usually free from 
ice, and that Germany before the war en¬ 
joyed an extensive foreign trade. Name 
some articles from the United States that 
probably used to enter this port. What water 
connections has Hamburg with the interior ? 

Bremen and Stettin also admit large vessels, 
and are the chief rivals of Hamburg; but they to¬ 
gether have less than one half as much commerce as 
Hamburg. In what respects is the situation of 
Hamburg more favorable to commerce than that of 
Bremen and Stettin? Locate the free city of Dan¬ 
zig. Why is it a natural outlet for wheat from 
most of Poland? Estimate the distance saved to 

















348 


EUROPE 


the Baltic ports by the cutting of the Kiel Canal, 
south of Denmark, which is sixty-one miles in 
length. What city is at the eastern end of this 
canal ? 

On ascending the Rhine into Germany 
we come to the great manufacturing region, 

6. Cities along already mentioned (p. 343). 
the Rhine River What cities are found there ? 
(l) Cologne Cologne, the largest, with 
and vicinity a population of over half a 

million, is on the river bank. It is a great 



Fig. 427. —The Cologne Cathedral, one of the most 
famous churches in Europe. 


shipping point, since railways cross the 
river, and boats from foreign ports are able 
to ascend to this point. 

Near Cologne are Elberfeld and Barmen, which 
have textile manufactories; Essen, which is famous 
for the Krupp steel works; Krefeld, which is an 
important silk-manufacturing town; Aachen, which 


manufactures woolen cloth; and Coblenz, a stra¬ 
tegic point on the frontier. 

Just beyond the chief bend in the Rhine 

is Frankfort, on a navigable tributary, 

the Main. The easiest route /ox _ 

, (2) Frankfort 

from the Rhine \ alley to the 
Danube lies along this tributary; and, 
since the railway from the German plain to 
the upper Rhine passes Frankfort, this city 
is a center of important trade routes. For 
this reason it is one of the chief trading 
and banking centers in Germany. It has 
long been prominent, and was the capital 
of the old German Confederation (p. 337). 

The Rhine, the most important river in 
Germany, is often compared with the Hud¬ 
son. In both rivers there are The Rhine 
sections that are shut in by River corn- 
high, rocky cliffs, well wooded pared with 
to the top. The Rhine, how- the Hudson 
ever, is much narrower than In scenery 
the Hudson, so that these walls seem loftier; 
and since the stream is more winding, they 
often stand out boldly, as if in the very 
path of boats, to bar their further progress. 

When one journeys along the more beautiful por¬ 
tion of the Rhine, a fine old castle often comes into 
view, as a turn in the river course reveals an espe¬ 
cially bold cliff. Sometimes several such reminders 
of the past may be seen from a single point on the 
river. Many of these are in ruins, but now and then 
one is seen that is still kept up as a residence. The 
Hudson lacks such castles, although there are many 
magnificent residences along its lower course. 

There are many terraced vineyards on the sloping 
hillsides bordering the Rhine (Fig. 421), and like¬ 
wise many a quaint village built on a narrow strip 
of flood-plain between the river and the cliff (Fig. 
429). Since the Rhine receives more large tribu¬ 
taries than the Hudson, there are more wild glens 
on the sides, and more broad, wooded valleys, which 
open up charming views from the river. The open¬ 
ings in the valley walls, where these tributaries enter, 
are favorite sites for towns. 

In regard to the distribution of cities 
along its banks, the Rhine g j 
offers still further contrast to tion 0 f popula _ 
the Hudson. The latter has tion along its 
a large population at only two course 
points; namely, near its mouth, where there 

























GERMANY 


349 



Fig. 428. — Some of the quaint houses in the ancient city of Frankfort. 



are millions of people, and about one hun¬ 
dred and fifty miles above the mouth, where 
Albany, Troy, and Cohoes are 
situated. Between Yonkers, 
just above New York City, 
and Albany, there is not a 
city with thirty thousand in¬ 
habitants. The Rhine, on the 
other hand, while having no 
enormous collection of people 
at any one point, lias many pop¬ 
ulous cities along its course. 

Name several. What have 
you already learned about 
Rotterdam at its mouth ? 

How does it compare with 
New York City in size? 


about the recent change in the government. 4. 
State some facts about the heavy losses from 


1. What is the position of Ger¬ 
many ? Explain its 
leview . J , x 0 1V1 , 

motions advantages. 2. V hat 
about the formation 
>f the German Empire? 3. Tell 


Fig. 42<J. — The Rhine, with a village, a vineyard, and an old castle 

on the right. 




































350 


EUROPE 



Fig. 430. — Snow-covered mounluins with a glacier extending from them down one 

of the Alpine valleys. 


23. The seaports. 24. The cities along the Rhine. 

25. Name and locate the principal cities of Germany. 

26. Compare the Rhine River with the Hudson in 
scenery. 27. In distribution of population along 
its course. 

1. Find in an atlas in what parts of the country 
the larger states, such as Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, 
0 . ,. etc., are situated. 2. People often 

ugges ions assert that the peace of Europe is 

preserved by careful preparation for war. lias this 
statement proved to be true? 3. What must be 
some of the benefits of two years of active training 
in the army, aside from preparation for war ? What 


This is a very moun¬ 
tainous country (Figs. 
430 and 434), Surface 
for the Jura features 
Mountains are on the 
northwestern border, 
while the Alps occupy 
the southern half. Be¬ 
tween these two moun¬ 
tain systems, which ex¬ 
tend northeast and south¬ 
west, is a low, hilly 
plateau, from one to two 
thousand feet in altitude. About one third 
of Switzerland is included in the plateau 
belt. 

It is evident that the climate of this 
mountainous country must be cool, and 
that there must be great differ- climate 
ences in temperature according ^ Tempera- 
to the altitude. At the base of ture 
the Alps, chestnut and walnut trees grow; 
higher up, these give place to the beech, 
maple, and other trees of the cool temperate 


the war. 5. Show how preparation for war 
has played a part in German History. 6. De¬ 
scribe the highlands. 7. The lowlands. 8. The 
drainage. 9. Tell what you can about the tem¬ 
perature ; the rainfall. 10. What is the condition 
of lumbering? 11. What are the leading agricul¬ 
tural products? 12. What are the principal mineral 
products ? 13. State the importance of manufac¬ 
turing ; and locate the leading manufacturing 
centers. 14. Name the principal kinds of manu¬ 
facturing. 15. How lias Germany advanced in 
recent years? Give some reasons for it. 16. What 
can you tell about the rapid growth of the cities? 
17. State the principal facts about Berlin. 18. Leip¬ 
zig.- 19. Dresden. 20. Chemnitz, Halle, and Magde¬ 
burg. 21. Breslau. 22. Munich and Nuremberg. 


are some of the disadvantages ? What relation has 
this to emigration ? 4. What is the size of our stand¬ 
ing army? Why not larger? 5. What seaports 
of Europe most nearly approach Hamburg in size? 
6. How might the Kiel Canal possibly prove an in¬ 
jury to Hamburg? 7. Show that Germany resem¬ 
bles Great Britain in her industries, while differing 
greatly from Russia and Norway. 8. Find out some¬ 
thing about Goethe; Schiller; Humboldt; Emperor 
William the First; Bismarck; Yon Moltke; Wag¬ 
ner ; Schumann. 


IX. Switzerland (Fig. 390) 


1. What countries surround Switzerland (Fig. 
358)? 2. What mountains extend along the bounda¬ 
ries of Switzer¬ 
land? 3. Which Map Study 

of the boundaries is least 
mountainous? 4. What large 
rivers rise among the Alps? 
In what direction does each 
flow ? 5. There are many lakes 
among the Alps (Fig. 416). 
What does their abundance 
suggest? 6. How does the 
area of Switzerland compare 
with that of your own state? 





SWITZERLAND 


351 


zones ; and still higher is a belt of ever¬ 
greens. Above these come dwarfed trees, 
shrubs, and grass ; and higher still, at an 
average elevation of about nine thousand 
feet, the snow line is reached. 

The lofty Alps, rising in the path of the 
prevailing west winds, cause Switzerland 

2. Rainfall and one °f tile wettest COU11- 

the formation of tries on the continent. On 
glaciers the higher mountains much 

snow falls ; and, sliding down the moun¬ 
tain sides in the form of avalanches, it 
gathers in the valleys to produce streams 
of ice, or glaciers (Fig. 430). These move 
slowly down the valleys until they reach a 
point, below the snow line, where the ice 
melts. The Rhone and other rivers are 
supplied with water by the melting of the 
Alpine glaciers. 

In so rugged a country one would hardly 
expect a large population ; yet Switzerland 
People and is almost as densely settled 

government as France, and much more so 
than the state of New York. 

People who dwell among mountains develop a 
spirit of independence, as is illustrated by the story 
of William Tell. Thus we find that, as early as 
1291, an agreement was made among a few of the 
small Swiss states, or cantons, to unite for protec¬ 
tion. Many a time since then other nations have 
tried to conquer the Swiss; but, aided by the diffi¬ 
cult approaches to their country, and by the moun¬ 
tain strongholds to which they could retreat, the j 
Swiss have been able to maintain their freedom. 
Yet the area of the entire country is only one third 
that of Pennsylvania. Their twenty-two cantons, 
united somewhat as are our states, now form a 
republic whose independence the Great Powers of 
Europe have agreed to maintain. 


Although the Swiss have a stable govern¬ 
ment, they lack a common language. The 
country is most open toward 
anguages ^]-, e nor th, for there the plateau 

of Switzerland merges into that of Germany. 
Naturally, therefore, the influence of Ger¬ 
many has spread into Switzerland, and 
German-speaking people are most numer¬ 
ous, making up over one half of the 
population. The approach from France 


is much more difficult, and the French 
population forms less than one fourth of 
the whole, while the remainder speak 
Italian. 

Owing to the mountainous condition, 
only one acre in nine is lit for the plow. 
Yet agriculture is the princi- 
pal industry. On the lower Agriculture 
lands grain, potatoes, grapes, and the mul- 



Fig. 431. — A Swiss peasant girl iu native costume. 


berry tree are raised, as in the neighboring 
countries ; and on the lower mountain slopes 
dairy farming is important, as might be ex¬ 
pected. Here cattle and goats are raised, 
being driven to higher pastures as the 
snows melt from the mountain sides. 
The population is so dense, however, that 
much food must be imported ; but cheese 
and condensed milk, made from farm prod¬ 
ucts, are exported. 

Switzerland is very poor in mineral de- 







352 


EUROPE 




Fig. 432. — Cattle on the slopes of the Alps. 

posits, and there is very little coal. Such 
a scarcity of raw materials would suggest 
Mining and that there is little manufac- 
manufacturing turing ; but this is not the 
case, for in spite of the absence of coal, 
ore deposits, and cotton, the Swiss have 
developed extensive manufacturing. Like 
the New Englanders, they make light arti¬ 
cles mainly, such as jewelry and textile 
goods, especially silk. They 
also do much wood carvinsr. 

There are several reasons 
why manufacturing is so 
highly de¬ 
veloped. Al¬ 
though coal is 
wan tin or, there 
is ah u n d a n t 
supplied by 


The Swiss are further 
favored by their central 
position; 3 Central 
for they location 
are surrounded by 
densely populated coun¬ 
tries which supply raw 
materials and furnish a 
market for manufac¬ 
tured goods. 

Finally, their roads 
and. railways are re¬ 
markably 4 . Roads and 
developed, railways 

One might think that 
it would be very diffi¬ 
cult to transport goods 
in such a country. In fact it would be, if 
the Swiss had not taken special pains to 
overcome the difficulties ; but the very fact 
that nature has made transportation so 
difficult, has led the people to build the 
best of highways. No country in the world 
has better roads than Switzerland. 

Railroads pierce the mountains in several direc¬ 
tions, connecting Switzerland with foreign countries. 


Reasons for so 
much manu¬ 
facturing 

1. Water 
power 

water power 


the swift mountain streams, 
which are fed by the melt¬ 
ing snows. The Swiss are 
taking a leading place in 
the use of such power, by 
means of electricity. 

They are unusually skill- 
ful mechanics, too, a fact 
that is proved 
by the remark¬ 
able wood carving for which 
they have long been noted. 


2. Skill 


Fig. 433 . — The St. Gothard Railway on the south side of the Alps. Here are 
seen three tracks one above the other, for at this point the railway enters 
the mountain, swings in two great circles, coming out each time at a 
higher level. 




















SWITZERLAND 


353 



Fig. 43 L- 


Zurich, the larg¬ 
est city in Switzer 
Leading land, is 

cities situated 

on Lake Zurich. It 
is an important rail¬ 
way center, being 
connected with Italy 
by the St. Gothard 
Railway, while other 
railways bring it in 
touch with France, 

Germany, and Aus¬ 
tria. These rail¬ 
roads are especially important in bringing 
foods, as well as silk and other raw mate¬ 
rials, for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is 
the center of one of the principal manufac¬ 
turing districts. It is noted for the manu¬ 
facture of silks, cotton, and machinery. 

Basel, the second largest city in Swit¬ 
zerland, is the busiest railway center in the 
country. It is on the main line of the St. 
Gothard Railway, and on the Rhine at the 
point where it enters Germany from Switzer¬ 
land. Why is its position, near both t ranee 
and Germany, favorable to manufacturing ? 

Geneva, situated on the lower end of 
Lake Geneva, near where the Rhone enters 
France, is the third city of the Republic, 
and a noted educational center. It is on a 


The snow-capped Alps as seen from Mount Pilatus, with Lake Lucerne 
in the foreground. 


peaks always covered with snow. Lucerne, for 
example, is surrounded by grand and varied scenery. 
The city is located upon Lake Scenery and 
Lucerne, and lofty mountains rise tourists 
close at hand (Fig. 434). Mounts 
Rigi and Pilatus are near by, and from their summits 
one obtains magnificent views of the lake, over four 
thousand feet below, bordered by green meadows 
and numerous villages. In several directions, as 
far as the eye can reach, are the snow-covered 
crests of stupendous, jagged mountains. 


On account of such scenery Switzerland is the 
most noted summer resort of Europe; and the 
entertainment of visitors is one of the leading 
occupations of the Swiss people. There are so 
many hotels and fine roads, that one can easily go 
almost anywhere. It is possible even to reach the 
tops of several of the mountains by rail. Every 
summer many Americans cross the ocean to enjoy 
the Swiss scenery. 


One of the most important is the St. Gothard Rail¬ 
way, which connects Switzerland with Italy by the 
St. Gothard Tunnel. This is one of the longest tun¬ 
nels in the world, and is a marvel of engineering 
skill. Before reaching the main tunnel, in traveling 
north, several smaller ones are entered, through 
which the train winds in a circular course. A passen¬ 
ger twice comes out of the mountain almost directly 
over the point where he entered it. There, far below 
him, he can see the two places at which the train 
entered (Fig. 433). Such winding tunnels are neces¬ 
sary, because the grade is so steep that a train could 
not be drawn directly up a straight track. The 
main tunnel, which is nine and one fourth miles 
long, is quite straight. 

The Simplon Tunnel, 
even longer than the 
St. Gothard, now pierces 
the Alps a short dis¬ 
tance farther west. 


very ancient and important trade route from 
the Mediterranean to Germany (p. 319), and 
has excellent railway connections. There 
is much manufacturing, among the impor¬ 
tant articles made being jewelry and scien¬ 
tific instruments. It has been chosen as the 
seat of the League of Nations. 

Berne, the capital, is a small city because 
it is not favorably situated for commerce. 

Many of the Swiss cities and towns are beautifully 
situated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain 






354 


EUROPE 



Review 

Questions 


1. Describe the surface of Switzerland. 2. The 
climate. 3. State the chief facts about the people 
and the government. U. What about 
the languages ? 5. State the princi¬ 
pal facts about agriculture. 6. About 
mining and manufacturing. 7. Give several reasons 
why manufacturing is so well developed. 8. Locate 
and state the main facts about Zurich. 9. Basel. 
10. Geneva and Berne. 11. Why is Switzerland so 
attractive to tourists ? 

1. How may the lakes filter and regulate the riv¬ 
ers ? 2. What reasons are there for giving particular 
attention to the study of English 
and other foreign languages in the 
Swiss schools? 3. Why has Switzerland, unlike 


Suggestions 


Fig. 435.— A team in Naples consisting of a horse, a cow, 
and a donkey. 

many European countries, not come into pos¬ 
session of colonies? 4. Find the meaning of “ refer¬ 
endum ” and “ popular initiative ” in Swiss legislation. 

5. Switzerland has long been selected as a place of 
refuge for persecuted people and political refugees 
from other nations. Why? 6. Read that portion of 
the story of William Tell which is supposed to have 
occurred about Lake Lucerne. 7. Find out where 
Louis Agassiz was born; where he later lived; and 
what he did to prove his theory of the Great Ice 
Age. 


X. Italy (Fig. 416) 

1. The shape of Italy reminds you of what object 
(Fig. 416)? 2. How does its latitude compare with 
„ , that of Spain? 3. What neighbor- 

U ^ ing islands belong to it? 4. Point 
out the principal river. 5. How are the lofty moun¬ 


tains in the north likely to affect the climate farther 
south? 6. What countries border Italy? 7. What 
seas border it? 8. How does its position seem to be 
favorable for commerce ? 


The area of Italy, including the islands of 
Sicily and Sardinia, is only a little greater 
than that of Colorado ; but its its area and 
population is over thirty-four population 
million. It is the smallest of the Great 
Powers, but is the most densely settled of 
any except the United Kingdom. Name 
the other Great Powers. 

The position of Italy is a very 
favorable one. It lies in the midst 
of the Mediterranean, importance of 
whose shores are its position 
densely populated. What country 
in Africa lies nearest to Italy (Fig. 
497) ? Estimate the distance to 
it. How far is it from Italy to the 
Suez Canal (Fig. 455) ? 

It has been said that Italy is 
“ the very heart of the Mediter¬ 
ranean lands, and plays a great 
part as a link in the chain of com¬ 
munication between northwestern 
Europe and the Far East.” For 
example, mails from London to 
India are carried by water to the 
western coast of continental Europe, 
and then go overland to Brindisi, 
and thence by steamer. From this 
it is plain that Italy’s central position is an 
advantage for trade with Africa and Asia, 
as well as with southern Europe. 

The inhabitants of Italy are a mixture of 
many peoples. In early times, the central 
position of the peninsula was People and 
of importance in aiding Rome government 
to control the lands bordering on the 
Mediterranean Sea. At that time people 
from the surrounding lands of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa were brought to the peninsula, 
often as slaves captured in war. Later, 
when the power of the Roman Empire was 
weakened, hordes of barbarians invaded 
Italy from central Europe. 

For centuries after this, Italy was broken 








SWITZERLAND 


355 



up into a number of independent states. 
In 1860, however, several of these states 
united to form the Kingdom of Italy. 
Later others were added, until in 1870, or 
about the time that the German Empire 
£ was formed (p. 337), the present king¬ 
dom was established, with Rome as its 
capital. Like most of the European coun¬ 
tries, Italy is governed by a 
limited, or constitutional, 
monarchy. 

Throughout most of its ex¬ 
tent, the Italian peninsula is 
Surface mountainous. In 

features the north are the 

Alps, some of whose highest 
peaks are on the boundary 
between Italy and Switzer¬ 
land. The Alpine ranges 
curve around in northwestern 
Italy and join the Apennines, 
which extend the entire length 
of the peninsula and form its 
very backbone. The principal 
lowlands, therefore, are the 
narrow coastal plains and the 
broad Po Valley. There are 
also many small, fertile valleys 
among the mountains. 


northward in summer and covers Italy 
(p. 229); therefore at that season the 
climate of southern Italy resembles that of 
southern Spain. 

Such a climate, together with a fertile 

soil, helps to explain why . . 

n , . n r . Agriculture 

agriculture is the principal 

industry of Italy. 


Fig. 43li. — Lago 
of the Alps, 
the lake. 


We think of Italy as a 
sunny land of dowers, al- 
Climate though Milan and 

1 Tempera- Venice are in nearly the same 
ture latitude as Montreal. One 

reason for the pleasant Italian climate is 
that the lofty Alps form a wall which cuts 
off the cold north winds. Another reason 
is that the temperature is greatly induenced 
by the Mediterranean Sea, whose waters do 
not freeze even in winter. On these 

accounts the Italian winters are mild; 

and in the extreme south the temperature 
seldom falls to the freezing point. 

Much of Italy has an abundance of rain ; 
but everywhere, except in the north, the 
greater part comes in winter. 
The summer drought is due to 
the fact that the horse-latitude belt moves 


2. Rainfall 


di Garda, one of the Italian lakes on the southern side 
Here are found groves of lemou trees along the shores of 


The most extensive farming district is 
the fertile plain of the Po Valley. There 
is an abundance of rain here ; x Extent of 
yet the people depend upon irrigation, with 
irrigation more than in most reasons 
other parts of Europe. There are several 
reasons for this. In the drst place, the 
tributaries of the Po, fed by the rains, snows, 
and glaciers of the mountains, furnish a 
steady supply of water to the gently sloping 
land. Besides this, the rivers frequently 
dow through lakes — some of them among 
the most beautiful in the world (Pig- 436) 
— which act as great reservoirs for water 
supply. This tends further to furnish a 
regular supply. 












356 


EUROPE 



In the second place, better crops can be 
raised by irrigation than without it, partly 
because the flooding of the land fertilizes 
the soil, and partly because with irrigation 
there can be no drought. By the aid of 
irrigation, from four to ten crops may be 
raised in a year. 

Among the products are many that thiive 
in semi-tropical climates, as well as otheis 
2. Agricultural that are common in northern 
products Europe. Where irrigation is 

so easy, the extensive cultivation of rice is 


is ground up iuto a kind of meal, as wheat is ground 
into flour. 

Among the mountains there is much natural 
pasture, to which herds of sheep and goats are driven 
in summer. Many goats are raised in Italy loi their 
milk, and they are even driven into the cities, and 
milked at the doors of the customers (Fig. 437). 

One great drawback to the proper development 
of agriculture in Italy is the presence of broad, 
marshy tracts infested w ith mosqui- ^ important 
toes, whose bite causes malaria. draw b a ck to 
This is especially true in the south- agriculture 
ern half of the country, and there, 
even with fertile soil and a warm climate, large 
tracts of laud have had to be abandoned. One sixth 

of the population suffers 
from malaria, and there are 
thousands of deaths from 
that disease every year. It 
is not to be wondered at 
that the Italian government 
is attempting to stamp out 
this dread disease. 


Fig. 437. — A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. They 
door, and milked whenever the customers wish to 


are driven from door to 
buy the milk. 


possible. This is an important crop in 
northern Italy; but corn and wheat are 
raised in still greater quantities. Grapes 
are grown to such an extent that Italy 
ranks first among the wine-producing 
countries of the world ; and so many silk 
worms are reared that raw silk is the most 
valuable export. Among the other im¬ 
portant products are eggs, which are ex¬ 
ported in large quantities; also olives, 
oranges, lemons, flax, hemp, and wool. 


On some of the slopes forests are grown, but most 
of the natural forest was cut off long ago. Among 
the useful trees is the chestnut, which is planted in 
groves for the nuts, that serve as an important food. 
The Italian chestnut is much larger than ours, and 


The fishing industry 
is important. Among 
the peculiar Fishing and 
products of mining 
the sea are precious coral 
and sponges. You will 
remember that we found 
sponge fishing impor¬ 
tant also among the 
Bahama Islands east of 
Florida. 

In Italy there is a 
general lack of valuable mineral deposits. 
Except in the island of Elba there is almost 
no iron ; and no coal of value is found in 
the kingdom. Indeed coal, wheat, and cot¬ 
ton are the leading imports. 1 here is a little 
zinc and copper ore ; but one of the most 
important mineral products is the sulphur 
of Sicily. Another mineral product is the 
pure white Carrara marble, of such rare 
beauty that it is prized the world over. 

As in Switzerland, water power supplies 
the place of coal to some extent, often being 
used to produce electricity. Manufacturini 
There is, therefore, more man¬ 
ufacturing than one might infer from tla 
lack of fuel. While much raw silk is pro 






































ITALY 


357 


duced, and there is some silk manufacturing, 
a large part of the raw silk is sent to France, 
Switzerland, and elsewhere, to be made into 
cloth. There are also factories for woolen, 
cotton, and flax weaving, and for other 
purposes. 

Most European countries take pride in their fine 
art museums; but Italy far surpasses them all. It 
is the very storehouse of art, whether architecture, 


harbors, we may expect to find numerous 

large cities along the coast, as in Great 

Britain. But it is different Principal cities 

in the interior, for in so small j n the south 

and mountainous a country, i. Naples and 

with no coal and iron, there vicinity 

is less reason to expect large (!) Beauty of 
... ,, its locution 

cities there. 

The most populous city is Naples, in 



Fig. 438._Vesuvius in eruption (1892). A great column of steam and ash rises above the volcano; while 

streams of liquid rock, or lava, are flowing down its slopes. 


painting, or sculpture be considered. Because of 
the artistic tastes of the Italians, many of their 
manufactured articles are of an artistic nature. 
Among their manufactures are glass work, lace 
making, earthenware manufacture, the making of 
statuary, wood carving, coral carving, and straw 
plaiting. In what other country have we found 
that the artistic taste of the people greatly affects 
their manufactures (p. 314)? 

Estimate the average width of the Italian 
peninsula. Since it has many excellent 


the southern part of the peninsula. The 
semicircular Bay of Naples, on which it is 
situated, presents a most magnificent sight. 
On the north side, near the head of the 
bay, is the city itself, rising, street above 
street, upon the slopes of some low hills. 
Toward the east is Mount Vesuvius (Fig. 
438), with the crests of the Apennines in 
the distance. And on the south side of 
the bay is a steep, rocky coast, behind 













358 


EUROPE 


which are numerous villages, partly hidden 
among groves of orange, lemon, and olive 
trees. All around the bay is a succession 
of towns and villages. 

This is one of the most densely settled 
regions in Europe. There are several rea- 

(2) Reasons for S011S for tllis - ° ne is the fact 
the dense popu- that the land here is especially 
lation here fertile, having been made so 

by the decay of the volcanic ashes that have 


been thrown out of Vesuvius. The climate 
is also favorable to the growth of crops, 
and therefore the region around the bay 
supports a dense agricultural population. 
The harbor, too, is good, so that there is 
more shipping here than in any other Italian 
port, with the single exception of Genoa. 

The reason for so large a city, and for so many 
towns and villages in this agricultural region, is found 
partly in the peculiar character of the Italians. They 
feel a dread of isolated homes, such as are common 
in the farming district of the United States. Instead, 
therefore, of living in scattered houses on farms, they 
crow T d into the-villages and cities. They do this, too, 
even though they must travel along distance to their 
fields of work, or must suffer now and then from ex¬ 
treme want. 


Within plain sight of Naples stands 
Mount Vesuvius, a cone of lava and ashes 
nearly a mile in height, from (3) MountVesu _ 
whose crater volumes of steam vius; its history 
constantly pour forth. At the and attractwns 
time of Christ the slopes of this mountain 
were dotted with productive farms, while 
thriving towns spread over the country at 
its base. But in the year 79 a terrible 
eruption took place which completely buried 
Pompeii, Herculaneum, and 
many villages, beneath showers 
of ashes and streams of vol¬ 
canic mud. Since then Vesu¬ 
vius has been in eruption many 
times, the last violent outbreak 
occurring in 1906. 

During the last century the buried 
city of Pompeii has been uncovered 
at great labor and cost. By these 
excavations much has been learned 
about the buildings and customs of 
the people who lived here at the 
time of Christ. One can walk along 
these deserted streets (Fig. 439), 
and wander among the ruined homes 
from which the people were driven 
forth on that terrible day, nearly 
two thousand years ago. 

At present, tourists are able to go 
to the summit of Vesuvius almost 
any day. There they see one of the 
most awful sights in the world, 
when they cautiously approach to 
the very edge of the crater — an 
opening perhaps a quarter of a mile across — and peer 
down into the abyss. Sometimes reports like the 
thunderings of cannon come from far below, and 
lumps of white-hot lava, several feet in diameter, are 
hurled upward. At times lava lumps are thrown 
above the mouth of the opening and fall here and 
there outside, making one’s visit full of excitement. 

The principal city south of Naples is Pa¬ 
lermo, the capital of Sicily. It is situated 
in the midst of extensive vine¬ 
yards and fruit groves. What 2 ' Palerm0 
fruits would you expect to find there ? 

The site of Rome was well chosen. It 
lies near the center of the Rome 

Mediterranean and near the , 

. 1- Advantages 

center of the Italian peninsula of its location 



Fig. 439. — A street in Pompeii. Even the tops of the houses were buried 
beneath volcanic ash which was erupted from Vesuvius (seen in the 
background) in the year 79. 










ITALY 


359 




as well. In that part of Italy the fertile 
coastal plains are broad, and are crossed by 
the Tiber, the largest river of the country 
except the Po. In that vicinity, also, the 


Fig. 440. — St. Peter’s Cathedral (on the left) and the Vatican 
(on the right) in Rome. 


Apennines reach their greatest height, which 
insures abundant water supply for the Tiber 
and for irrigation on the plains. Moreover, 
the valley of the Tiber offers one of the 
most convenient routes across the peninsula. 
These are some of the advan¬ 
tages that attracted to ancient 
Rome a population of fully a 
million, and caused the sur¬ 
rounding country to be thickly 
settled and carefully tilled. 

Now, however, the city contains 
about half as many inhabitants, 

2. Influence while the neighbor¬ 
ed malaria ing plains, for miles 

around, though beautiful pasture 
land, have scarcely a tree or a house 
upon them. Because of the dread 
malaria, people shun this region; 
and at present much of the country 
is used only for grazing. As sum¬ 
mer approaches, even the herdsmen flee with their 
cattle and sheep to the mountains. 


art galleries, and notable ruins are numerous 
in the city. The dome of St. Peter s — the 
largest and most famous church in the world 
— towers above everything else; and the 
Vatican , where the Pope re¬ 
sides, is the most noted palace 
in Christendom (Fig. 440). 
In the Vatican are some of the 
finest and most beautiful of 
Michael Angelo’s paintings. 

The ruins of ancient Rome, 
which rival in interest these 
works of later days, cover so 
many acres that the city is 
almost as much a tomb as a 
living city. One of the most 
notable relics of the past is 
the Colosseum (Fig. 441), a 
huge, oval-shaped amphi¬ 
theater, open to the sky, with 
seats for forty or fifty thou¬ 
sand persons. In the days 
of the Roman Empire it was 
used to witness life-and-death struggles 
between men, and between men and wild 
beasts. 

The Forum is another extensive ruin 
within the city limits. It was the great 


Fig. 441. — The Colosseum, one of the ruins of ancient Rome. 


Although agriculture and commerce do 


3. Its attrac¬ 
tions 


not flourish near Rome, fine 
residences, public buildings, 


public square, on a lowland among some 
low hills; but its monuments, arches, and 
other ornaments became covered with rub¬ 
bish during the centuries that followed the 
fall of the Roman Empire. The excavation 





























360 


EUROPE 




of this famous spot has not yet been com¬ 
pleted, whole buildings, as well as smaller 
objects, having been buried in 
that locality. 

With the exception of Rome 
and Naples the large cities of 
Principal cities the Italian penin- 
in the north sula are in the 

1. Florence northern part. 

The first one north of Rome 
is Florence, on the western 
base of the Apennines, at a 
junction of roads across the 
mountains. Straw plaiting, 
mosaic work, and silk manufac¬ 
turing are important Floren¬ 
tine industries. Florence is 
famous for its art galleries, 

Avhicli are among the best in 
the world. 

Milan, the leading city of 
northern Italy, owes its im- 

2. Milan portance to its 

and Turin location at the 

crossing of routes of travel and commerce ; 
one of these runs east and west in the Po 
Valley, the other north and south across 
the Alps. Turin has flourished for a 
similar reason. From very early times 


Fig. 443. — One of the canals of Venice with a gondola floating upon it. 

these cities have been important trade 
centers because of their position at the 
crossing of trade routes in a fertile, densely 


populated valley. The railways recently 
built across the Alps (p. 352) have greatly 


Fig. 442. — The Milan Cathedral. 


increased their importance. They are busy 
manufacturing centers, making silk goods, 
cutlery, and other articles. 

Milan possesses a magnificent cathedral (Fig. 
442), built of white marble, and adorned with more 
than a hundred spires and fully four 
thousand statues. On the wall of a 
former monastery at M ilan is Da Vinci’s 
famous painting, “ The Last Supper,” 
copies of which are seen in many of 
our homes. 

Genoa, although separated 

from the Po Valley by the low 

northern Apen- „ „ 

. . f .3. Genoa 

nines, is the natural 

seaport for Milan and Turin. 

Since it is a port of outlet for 

so fertile a region, and is now 

connected with central Europe 

by railway, this city is the 

most important seaport in 

Italy. 

A prominent port on the Adriatic Sea is 
Venice, one of the most interesting of 
European cities. When hordes of barba- 


























NEW COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 


361 


rians were invading Italy, some of the 


4 . Venice 

(1) Its location 
and former im¬ 
portance 


inhabitants retreated to a number of small, 
marshy islands in a lagoon, 
protected from the sea waves 
by low sand bars. The de¬ 
scendants of these people 
developed into a hardy, independent race, 
largely through contact with the sea. 
Their very position forced them to become 
sailors ; and the site of their city was favor¬ 
able for commerce between central Europe 
and Asia. Protected from attack by land, 
Venice rose in power, and with power came 



Fig. 444. — The citadel of the Republic of San Mariuo. 


wealth. Many beautiful houses, churches, 
palaces, and museums still remain to remind 
us of the ancient splendor of Venice. 


The city is built upon more than a hundred 
small islands, about two and a half miles from the 
mainland, with which it is now connected by rail¬ 
way. Canals take the place of streets. There are 
one hundred and fifty canals, the main one, or 
Grand Canal, being bordered by fine 
residences built of white marble, 
whose doorsteps lead down into the 
water. Nearly four hundred bridges join the dif¬ 
ferent islands, and there are many narrow foot¬ 
paths ; but since the chief thoroughfares are canals, 
gondolas (Fig. 443) take the place of wagons, car¬ 
riages, and street cars. No doubt, thousands of 
children in that city have never seen a horse. 


(2) Hoiv the 
city is built 


Trieste is a more important port on the 
Adriatic. Before the war it belonged to 
Austria ; but the Italians were very anxious 


to annex it, both because its inhabitants 
were principally Italians and also because 
any strong foreign power that 
owned it could too easily use nes e 
it as a base for war against Italy. Fiume is 
another Adriatic port that the Italians greatly 
desired. 


1. Give facts about the area and population of 
Italy. 2. Explain the importance of its position. 

3. Tell about the people, and the _ . 

1 A ' nPVIPW 

government. 4. Describe the sur- n 
face features. 5. The climate. ^ ues 10DS 

6. AVhy is irrigation especially common in Italy? 

7. Name the agricultural products. 8. IIow does 
malaria interfere with agriculture? 9. State the 
principal facts about fishing and mining. 10. Manu¬ 
facturing. 11. Describe the beauty of the location 
of Naples. 12. State the reasons for the dense pop¬ 
ulation here. 13. Tell about Mount Vesuvius; its 
history and attractipn. 14. Locate Palermo. 

15. State the advantages of the location of Rome. 

16. What about malaria in its vicinity ? 17. What 
are its present attractions? 18. Locate and state 
the principal facts about Florence. 19. Milan and 
Turin. 20. Genoa. 21. Venice. 22. What do 
you know about Trieste? 

1. Why should Italy have been much more im¬ 
portant in former times than now? 2. What col¬ 
onies has Italy in eastern Africa _ .. 

(Fig. 495)? Suggest reasons why Su « !es,l0n3 
Italy has so few colonies. 3. What must have been 
the influence upon Genoa and Venice of the dis¬ 
covery of the ocean route to India ? Why ? 

4. What must have been the influence of the Suez 
Canal? Why? 5. Mention advantages and dis¬ 
advantages of life in Venice. 6. Mention some of 
the uses of sulphur. 7. Make a post card collection 
of the different famous pictures of the Madonna. 

8. Find out about the Catacombs of Rome; the 
Appian Road; the Aqueducts. 9. Ask some lawyer 
to tell you what influence Roman law has had upon 
our own law. 10. Find some facts about Caesar, 
Cicero, Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michael 
Angelo. 11. Where was Columbus born ? 


XI. New Countries of Central 
Europe (Fig. 416) 

1. Which one of these countries is plainly the 
largest? 2. Which is the smallest? 3. Which ones 
have no seaport? 4. Trace the M stu ^ y 
Danube River across them. 5. What 
three tributaries has the Danube in these countries ? 
6. Which country seems to you to have the best 
position for commerce ? 7. Which has the greatest 

amount of level land? 







362 


EUROPE 


These four countries are among the most 
mountainous of Europe. The mountains 
Surface include the eastern half of the 

features Alps (Fig. 445), and several 

other extensive ranges. They form a circle 
inclosing a broad level area (Fig. 359), 
called the Hungarian plain (Fig. 447), 
through which the Danube River flows. 
The encircling mountains are broken at 
only two points, — once near Vienna, where 
the Danube enters the Hungarian plain, and 
again on the southeastern boundary, where 
that river leaves it. 

In so mountainous a region there are 
naturally many different kinds of climate. 

Everywhere except on the 
Climate 1 * 1 , • -i 

higher mountains, however, 

the temperature is favorable for the growth 
of grains and other crops of temperate 
latitudes. That is, the summers are warm 
and the winters are cold ; but the difference 
between summer and winter is much greater 
than in England. Why ? 

The rainfall of the lowlands, which aver¬ 
ages little over twenty inches, is barely 
enough for agriculture, and there are, there¬ 
fore, occasional summer droughts in some 
places. 

There are many kinds of people in each 
of these countries, with different customs 
p e0 pl e and languages. Most of those 

l. Variety in Austria are of German stock, 
of iaces Magyars, descendants of Mon¬ 

golian invaders, are most numerous in Hun¬ 
gary. Slavs make up the greater part of 
the population in Czechoslovakia and in 
Jugoslavia. Each country, however, con¬ 
tains representatives of many other races, 
and often several languages are spoken in a 
single town. Naturally the different peoples 
of each country preserve many of their pe¬ 
culiar ideas along with their peculiar lan¬ 
guage and dress ; and the task of welding 
them all into a nation is very difficult. 


To be sure, similar statements might be made in 
regard to the United States; for we also have a 
great variety of languages. But no matter from 
what part of the earth our citizens have come, they 


soon change their former customs, and become gen¬ 
uine Americans in spirit. The principal exception 
is the Chinese. The many peoples of these coun¬ 
tries resemble the Chinese in their tendency to re¬ 
main apart. ' Their religions, languages, and customs 
are so different that it is difficult for them to agree. 
Therefore they are often jealous and suspicious of 
one another. 


Fig. 445. — An Austrian village with mountain in 
the background. 

One reason for such variety of races is 
the rugged country with its many inclosed 
valleys. A people living in 2 . Reasons for 
such a valley generation after such variety 
generation and having little contact with 
other people beyond its surrounding moun¬ 
tain walls gradually comes to have differ¬ 
ent customs and speech from the others, 
even though they all originally belonged 
to the same stock. 

Another reason for the variety is found 
in the position of these countries. They 
lie on the road from Asia to Western and 
Northwestern Europe, and in centuries 
past many a horde from Asia has forced 
its way along this route. Other races in 
their path were driven to one side, or were 
mixed more or less with remnants of these 
new races that settled among them. Also 











NEW COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE 


368 




in more recent times neighboring peoples 
from the north, west, and south have en- 


long to a single race. Note how irregular 
the boundaries are. 

Many of the mountain slopes are forest- 
covered, and wild animals are still found in 
the remoter parts. Since nearly Lumbering and 
a third of the area is wooded, agriculture 
lumbering forms one of the important in¬ 
dustries. 

YV here the woods have been cleared away 
trom the mountain slopes, there are pastures 
for sheep and goats. Cattle are also raised, 
especially on the lowlands. 

Near the Adriatic, and in the warmer 
valleys, there are many vineyards ; and the 
mulberry tree is raised to furnish food for 
the silkworm, as in Italy (p. 356) and south¬ 
ern France (p. 314). Flax, hemp, potatoes, 
sugar beets, and tobacco are other im¬ 
portant crops. But the grains, especially 
wheat, rye, barley, oats, and corn, are the 
staple agricultural products of each of 
these countries. The broad plains of the 
Danube (Fig. 447) form one of the leading 
wheat-producing regions of Europe. So 
much wheat is raised that in normal times 
a large amount is exported. 

There is much mineral wealth in the 
mountains, including deposits . 
of salt, gold, silver, lead, mer- mmg 
cury, and copper. There are also precious 


Fig 447. — Threshing wheat on the Hungarian Plain, on which vast quan¬ 
tities of wheat are raised. 

stones, such as the Hungarian opal, which 
is celebrated for its beauty. The excellent 


Fig. 446. — A family of gypsies and their house, 
in Austria. 


tered these countries and remained. The 
Italians have pushed in from the south¬ 
west, for example; Ger¬ 
mans from the northwest, 
and Russian Slavs from the 
north. 

Until the year 1918 most of 
the territory included in these 

four states formed 

Forms of gov- called 

eminent ’ 

Austria-Hungary. 

Many of the people, however, 
were dissatisfied, and as one 
result of the World War they 
were enabled to divide into 
several nations. Jugoslavia 
is a monarchy, and the other 
three are republics. The boun¬ 
dary lines were drawn so that the majority 
of inhabitants of each country would be¬ 











364 


EUROPE 



Rhine valleys. The fact that the Danube is 
navigable from Germany to its mouth adds 
greatly to the value of these routes. But 
goods taken in either direction must pass 
through foreign ports. What disadvantage 
do you see in that fact ? 

The outlets by sea are still less convenient. 
In spite of the very extensive area of these 
four countries taken together, they have 
but little seacoast. Estimate its length. 
And, what is still worse, the coast is very 
difficult to reach from the interior on ac¬ 
count of rugged mountains that rise from 
the very seashore. Largely for this reason 


quality of the clays has made possible the 
manufacture of fine porcelain ware ; and the 
mineral quartz supplies the material for 
the Bohemian glass blowmrs, who make 
some of the finest glassware in the world. 

This glass is beautifully colored by adding 
small quantities of mineral substances, such 
as silver, copper, and cobalt, which are 
mined in the country. 

Iron ore is widely distributed ; and 
there are several places in which impor¬ 
tant beds of coal are found (Fig. 362). 

Some of the best deposits are in the north¬ 
west, near Prague, which explains why that 
city is extensively engaged 
in iron manufacturing. Coal 
and iron ore are mined there 
near together. 

There is much less manu¬ 
facturing in these countries 

Manufacturing ^ ia - n | n Gieat 
l. its extent, Britain, Ger- 
and kinds many, or France. 

Yet there are numerous cot¬ 
ton, woolen, flour, and paper 
mills, iron manufactories, the 
beet-susmr refineries. There is 

O 

also much silk weaving. The 
chief manufacturing region 
is in northwestern Czecho- Fig. 448. — A view in Vienna showing some of the fine public buildings. 
Slovakia, while the principal 
asrricultural sections are in the central and 

o 

eastern parts, particularly in Hungary. 

While there has been much progress in 
manufacturing in recent years, one reason 
for so little is found in the 


2. Reasons for 
so little manu- lack of education among the 

factunng people. Much of the manu¬ 

facturing is still done by hand, or by very 
simple machines. 

Another reason for so little manufactur¬ 
ing is that conveniences for transportation 
are so poor. Since the Danube cuts through 
the mountains on both the eastern and 
western boundaries, the most natural trade 
routes lead either down this river into the 
Black Sea, or else northward and westward 
into Germany, and thence down the Elbe or 


the ocean commerce of these states is much 
less than that of other large European coun¬ 
tries. By far the greater part of the foreign 
trade is carried on through German ports. 
One can readily understand, therefore, why 
these countries have comparatively little 
manufacturing, and no large colonies. 

While there are many small cities in 
all this area, there are surprisingly few 
large ones. The two largest, 

Vienna, the capital of Austria, 
and Budapest, the capital of Hungary, 
are on the Danube River and not on the 
seacoast. The reasons for this have just 
been suggested. State them. 

Vienna, which is larger than Philadel¬ 
phia, is the leading commercial center in 


Principal cities 











THE BALKAN PENINSULA 


365 


1. Vienna 


Austria and the fourth in size in Europe. 
The main reason for its size is that it has 
been the capital city of a great 
area, and is located on a large 
river in the central part of Europe. More¬ 
over, it is situated at an opening between 
mountains, through which, from the earliest 
times, the best routes have passed from 
western Europe to Asia, and from northern 
Europe to the Mediterranean. The rail¬ 
ways which lead from Petrograd to Rome, 
and from Berlin and Paris to Constanti¬ 
nople, converge toward this point, mak¬ 
ing the city a great railway and trade 
center. 


Vienna is a beautiful city, with many fine public 
buildings (Fig. 448), including several royal palaces, 
monuments, and some noted museums. The well- 
known University of Vienna is also located here. 
As in most large cities, there is much manufactur¬ 
ing of various kinds. 


Budapest, consisting of two towns (Buda 
and Pest), on opposite banks of the Danube, 
is the seat of the Hungarian 

2. Budapest government and was formerly 

the home of the Emperor for a part of each 
year. The city lies on the edge of the fer¬ 
tile wheat-raising plains of the Danube, and, 
like Odessa on the Black Sea, is engaged in 
flour manufacture and grain shipment. 

Prague, the leading city of Czechoslo¬ 
vakia, is situated on the navigable Elbe, 
which has been an important 

3. Prague trade route since early times. 
Located in the midst of a rich mineral 


region, it is a noted manufacturing center, 

as well as the capital. 

Belgrade, the former capital of Serbia, is 
the principal city of the new kingdom of 
4. Belgrade Jugoslavia. What advantages 
and Fiume do you see in its location ? 
Estimate its distance from Fiume. 


Fiume is so necessary to all these coun¬ 
tries that it may be made a free port open 
to them on equal terms. Although it has 
an excellent harbor, it can be reached only 
by crossing the mountains, and transporta¬ 
tion is on that account expensive. 


On the boundary between Austria and Switzer¬ 
land is Liechtenstein , a very small 
country that has distinguished itself Liechtenstein 
by maintaining its independence. 

1. Describe the surface features of these coun¬ 
tries. 2. The climate. 8. Tell about the mixture 
of races here. 4. Give reasons for 
such a mixture. 5. What forms of _ evl ® w 
government were adopted in 1918? ” ues 10ns 
6. State the principal facts about lumbering and 
agriculture. 7. Mining. 8. The extent and kinds 
of manufacturing. 9. Give reasons why there is so 
little manufacturing. 10. Locate and give the 
principal facts about Vienna. 11. Budapest. 
12. Prague. 13. Fiume. 14. Where is Liechten¬ 
stein and how has it distinguished itself ? 

1. What is the relative importance of the Danube 
and the Rhine rivers? 2. Find some Bohemian 
glass, to see how beautiful it is. ,. 

8. In an atlas look np Austria-Hun- SuggeStl0nS 
gary to find what territory it included. 4. These 
peoples are, no doubt, greatly pleased over the fact 
that Constantinople is no longer a part of the Turk¬ 
ish Empire. What reason do you see for such 
pleasure ? 5. By what water routes can goods 

from any of these countries reach the Rhine River ? 
The Baltic Sea ? Show these routes in a drawing. 


XII. The Balkan Peninsula (Fig. 416) 


416)? 

What 


Map study 


1. What countries border Rumania (Fig. 

2. Name the countries south of the Danube. 3. 
does the relief map (Fig. 360) tell 
you about the surface of each? 

4. What can you expect as to the temperature on 
this peninsula ? Why? As to the rainfall ? Why? 

5. Compare the number of large cities with the 
number in Germany and Italy, h hat conclusions 
do you draw concerning the occupations of the 
people? 6. Which of these nations has played the 
greatest part in history ? 


This double-pointed peninsula, called the 
Balkan Peninsula, is bounded on one side by 
the Adriatic and Mediterra- Boundaries 
nean seas, on another by the and surface 
Aegean and Black seas ; but, features 
unlike other European peninsulas, it has 
a very long land boundary. 1 race this 

boundary as well as you can. 

Throughout almost its entire extent the 
surface of the Balkan Peninsula is moun¬ 
tainous, which offers an explanation of the 
large number of separate countries here. 
How ? Many of the valleys are suited to 
agriculture, the most extensive being the 





366 


EUROPE 


Climate 


plains of the Danube in Rumania and 
Bulgaria. 

The climate varies greatly from seashore 
to interior, and from valley to mountain. 

Along the southern coast the 
winters are mild, as elsewhere 
near the Mediterranean. But in the north¬ 
east, near Russia, hot summers are followed 
by cold winters, when icy winds sweep down 
from the Russian steppes and the 
Danube freezes over. 

In so mountainous a land there 
is also much variation in rainfall. 

On the western slopes — for ex¬ 
ample, near the shores of the 
Adriatic — there is an abun¬ 
dance of rain ; but on the east 
coast and in the interior val¬ 
leys, especially in Greece, there 
is so little rain that agriculture 
depends upon irrigation. Why 
is this true of Greece espe¬ 
cially (p. 262)? i 

The eastern branch of the 1 s/J 
Balkan Peninsula comes so close 

to Asia that it has 
been called a “ bridge ” 
between Europe and 
Asia. At two points, 
the Dardanelles and 
the Bosporus (Fig. 452), the con¬ 
tinents are separated only by narrow 
straits. Animals and plants have 
crossed these barriers so easily, that there is 
a mixture of European and Asiatic species 
in that part of Europe. 

This region has also been a bridge for the 
passage of many peoples. Romans, various 
tribes of Slavs, and finally the Mohammedan 
Turks from Asia, have brought the Balkan 
Peninsula under their rule. Wherever 
the Turks went, they brought ruin ; and for 
four centuries, while the rest of. Europe 
was advancing, they held this region in 
such control that almost all progress was 
checked. 

By far the larger part of their Empire has 
always been in Asia ; but since their cap¬ 


Closeness to 
Asia ; effects 
on plants, 
animals, and 
people 


ture of Constantinople in 1453, which is on 
the European side of the Bosporus, that city 
was their capital and the center of their 
despotic control over southeastern Europe- 
All of Jugoslavia might well be con¬ 
sidered in a study of the Balkan Peninsula. 
The former state called Serbia 
was prominent among the Bal- Political divi- 

kan countries, and Montenegro considered, 
was also included among them. 

Since, however, Serbia and Montenegro 
have united with a former part of Hungary 
m the new kingdom of Jugoslavia, 
lat country was treated in connec¬ 
tion with Hungary (see p. 362). 

There are, therefore, five 
divisions here to be 
studied. They are Ru¬ 
mania, Bulgaria, Constan¬ 
tinople, Albania, and 

Greece. Locate each of 
them. 

The World War has had 
a great influence upon 

these coum 

trie s. T h e Effect of the 

. • World War 

most impor- upon , bese 

tant benefit Countries 

comes from the 

fact that the Turks have 

practically lost control of 

all their European territory. 

Even Constantinople, for¬ 
merly the chief city of Turkey, is no 

longer entirely under Turkish control. 
Also, the outlet from the Black Sea is 
now internationalized, so that all coun¬ 

tries can use it freely. The Turks can 
no longer interfere with commerce there, 
which is a very important gain for the 
whole world, and one especially welcome to 
Russia and to all the countries along the 
Danube River. 

As another result of the World War, the 
boundaries of these countries have been 
much changed, so as to include in one state, 
as far as possible, all the people who belong 
to the same race and speak the same lan- 



Fjg. 449. — A Greek peasant 
in native costume. 




367 


THE BALKAN PENINSULA 


guage. Notice how irregular the boundaries 
are. Quite likely that arrangement will help 







Fig. 450. — A Rumanian peasant in native 
costume. 

much to avoid war in the future. Can you 
see why? 

These two countries have much in com¬ 
mon, although the Danube separates them 
Rumania and for a long distance. They to- 
Bulgaria gether control its lower course, 
l. Agriculture a fact of much importance to 
other countries along 1 the Danube. 

Broad plains, suited to agriculture, bor¬ 
der the Danube in both countries, though 
the plains are far more extensive in Ru¬ 
mania than in Bulgaria. Naturally, there¬ 
fore, there is much farming. In both 
countries wheat and other grains are among 
the chief crops. The warmer climate of 
Bulgaria, south of the Balkan Mountains, 
permits the culture of products that cannot 
be raised in Rumania; for example, the 
mulberry for the silkworm, and roses for 
the valuable perfume, attar of roses. 

Many sheep, as well as other live stock, 
are raised in each country; in fact, herding 
is almost the sole industry on the barren 
steppes of eastern Rumania. 


There are large tracts of forest in each country; 
but there is more in Bulgaria, owing to its rugged 
surface, than in Rumania. Each country has valu¬ 
able mineral deposits; but, as in Jugoslavia, there 
is little mining. Nor is there much 
manufacturing, except such hand 2 \ 0ther indus - 
work as the manufacture of Turkish lines’ alS ° Chief 


rugs. 

With such slight development of the resources, 
there are few large cities. By far the largest is 
Bucharest, the capital of Rumania. Find the 
capital of Bulgaria. 


Constantinople has been famous for 
many centuries. Being situated on the 
beautiful, river-like outlet of Constantinople 
the Black Sea, called the Bos- l. Its location 
porus (Fig. 452), it commands the channel 
through which the commerce of the Black 
Sea must pass. This is a natural site for a 
city ; for it is the point where the crossing 
can best be made from Europe to Asia. 

The site of Constantinople is so favorable 
for a city that it was the seat of a Greek 
colony even before the days of 2 . its early 
Christ. Later the Roman Em- history 
peror Constantine named the city after 
himself (Constantine and polis meaning 
city), and made it the capital of the Roman 
Empire. 



As the capital of the Eastern Empire from 
395 to 1453 a.d. it was the leading center 
of fashion, art, and learning in the world ; 
and one of its churches, the Sancta Maria, 
completed about 527 a.d., still ranks among 










368 


EUROPE 



Fig. 452. —Constantinople and the Bosporus. The land on the other side of the strait is in Asia. 


ings of the common people, who live in the 
most squalid poverty. 

It has always seemed to be the object of 
the Turks to check progress as much as 
possible, and they have hindered modern 
improvements in their capital with surpris¬ 
ing success. Only since 1909 have electric 
lights, telephones, steam heat, and trolley 
cars begun to be introduced extensively. 
There are still very few street names and 
house numbers ; the city is divided into 
sections or quarters, and mail reaches a 
person by being carried to the quarter in 
which he lives, where further progress de¬ 
pends upon inquiries by the postman. 

Since the Turkish government has been 
as cruel as it has been backward, the hun- 


to modern improvements, and the general 
unwillingness of foreigners to adopt the 
Turkish language and customs, help to ex¬ 
plain what it means to be a Turk, and what 
a gain it is to have freed European territory 
from Turkish control. 

The new state of Albania extends from 
the boundary of Greece north to that of 
Jugoslavia and lies close along 
the Adriatic Sea. It has a Albania 
pleasant climate with plenty of rainfall. 
The soil is fertile and suited to agriculture. 
Cereals, fruits, and tobacco are the princi¬ 
pal products. Cattle and sheep are raised. 
The principal town is Skutaki. 

The southern end of the Balkan Peninsula 
is occupied by Greece. Owing to many 


the finest structures ever built. Fully 
thirty times the city has been destroyed by 
fire, on the average once every fifty years 
of its existence ; yet it has survived all 
such disasters. 

In 1453 it was conquered by the Turks 
under Mohammed II, and after that it lost 

3. Influence Of much of its beauty ; but some 
the Turks of the ancient splendor still 
uponit remains (Fig. 452). There 

are palaces, mosques, and other interesting 
and costly buildings alongside of the dwell- 


dreds of thousands of foreigners from all 
parts of the world who live in Turkey have 
no desire to adopt that country as their own. 
Instead of becoming Turks, as foreigners 
in our country become Americans, they 
prefer to be known as Greeks or Arabs or 
Russians, and accordingly speak their own 
tongue. Thus dozens of languages are in 
use, and a person who knows- only two or 
three is often helpless. Handbills and no¬ 
tices are usually printed in four languages. 
The opposition of the Turkish government 











THE BALKAN PENINSULA 


369 


short mountain ranges, extending in dif¬ 
ferent directions, the surface of Greece is 
Greece quite rugged, and large sec- 

1. Surface and tions are unfit for farming, 
climate Yet there are many small, fer¬ 

tile valleys. The coast line is very irregu¬ 
lar, with numerous peninsulas, islands, deep 
bays, and fine harbors, formed by the sink¬ 
ing of the irregular land. 

The Mediterranean causes a warm, pleas¬ 
ant climate, as in southern Italy. In Greece, 
however, as in Italy, the rainfall, which is 


moderate in winter, is so light in summer 
that irrigation is necessary for agriculture. 

It was in this small peninsula that the 
marvelous civilization of ancient Hellas , or 
2. Advantages Greece, was developed. While 
that the ancient the conditions amid which the 
Greeks enjoyed Q ree ] cs lived may liot Seem to 

have been very favorable, they were far 
better than they at first appear. The sea 
and mountains protected them from foreign 
enemies; and at the same time the sea, by 
means of the many fine harbors and pro¬ 
tected inlets, so connected the people that 
it was easy for them to carry on peaceful 
commerce. 

In other parts of the world strong nations 
have developed under such conditions as 


these. It was true, for instance, in Scandi¬ 
navia, in the British Isles, and in the Span¬ 
ish and Italian peninsulas. It is also true 
in the Japanese Islands, the home of the 
most highly developed Asiatics. 

Because of their ability to navigate the 
inland seas, the Greeks, in very early times 
(Fig. do*)^, kept closely in 3 . Early his- 1 
touch with the people from tory of Greece 
whom they had separated, and wdio still 
dwelt opposite them, 011 the coast of Asia. 
They improved upon the arts and customs 
of their mother country, and in 
time became the greatest power 
in the then known world. In 
those ancient days they devel¬ 
oped a civilization which, in 
spite of all our progress, still 
excels our own in very impor¬ 
tant respects. 

They cruised about the shores 
of the Mediterranean and be¬ 
came explorers at a time when 
most of Europe was occupied 
by savages or barbarians. They 
entered into trade relations with 
their neighbors, taught them 
Greek arts, and established 
many colonies. Among these 
were some colonies in Italy, 
through which the Greeks ex¬ 
erted a strong influence upon the Romans. 

Rome finally conquered Greece, and 
became the leading country of the world, 
spreading her civilization far 4 . its later 
over Europe. It must be hlstor y 
remembered, though, that much of this 
civilization was really derived from the 
Greeks. After the decline of the Roman 
Empire, other people from the north in¬ 
vaded Greece; and finally the Turks 
entered the country, bringing ruin with 
them. Greece is now an independent coun¬ 
try and even controls some territories in Asia. 

In this little country there are few natural 
resources. There is no coal, and therefore 
little manufacturing. There is some min¬ 
ing, as of iron ore, lead, and zinc; but the 















370 


EUROPE 


principal occupations are herding and farm¬ 
ing. Large numbers of sheep and goats are 
5. Principal raised; and the chief farm 
industries products are grain, tobacco, 
olives, and fruits. Among the latter is the 
small variety of grape known as the currant. 
Currant, together with raisin grapes, are 
cultivated in large quantities on the steep 


thousand inhabitants, is situated inland six 
miles from its port, Piraeus. The prin¬ 
cipal streets of the present city _ 
r £ 6. Leading city 

are quite modern ; but rums of 

ancient Athens are still numerous. The 
most noted buildings, and some of the finest 
temples of ancient Greece, stood upon the 
Acropolis (Fig- -154), a level-topped rocky 



Fig. 454. — The Acropolis at Athens. 


hillsides; after being gathered they are 
spread out to dry, and are marketed as 
dried fruit. 

The neighborhood of the sea has led the 
Greeks to continue their seafaring life, and 
they still carry on an extensive foreign 
trade. Many are also engaged in fishing, 
and in securing bath sponges from the shal¬ 
low sea bottom among the Greek islands. 

Athens, the capital and most important 
city, with about a hundred and sixty-seven 


hill with steep sides. This stronghold was 
the natural center of settlements on the sur¬ 
rounding plain. 

AVhile Athens has always been the lead¬ 
ing city, Saloniki, which was conquered 
from the Turks in 1913, is of 
about the same size ; and dur¬ 
ing the World War it was of very great im¬ 
portance? for it was the base of operations 
for the allied armies in this region. The 
main route from the JEgean coast to the 


7. Saloniki 









THE BALKAN PENINSULA 


371 


Danube Valley is from Saloniki up through 
Nish, in Jugoslavia, to Belgrade. 


Review 

Questions 


1. Describe the boundaries and surface of the 
Balkan Peninsula. 2. The climate. 3. How close 
is this peninsula to Asia, and what 
have been some of the effects of this 
location on plants, animals, and 
people? 4. Show how important Constantinople 
has been to the former Turkish Empire. 5. What 
political divisions are here considered? 6. Locate 
each of them. 7. Explain the effects of the World 
War upon these countries. 8. AVhich do you re¬ 
gard as the most important effect among those 
mentioned ? 9. What are the agricultural products 
of Rumania and Bulgaria? 10. What are the 
other industries? 11. The chief cities? 12. Show 
the importance of the location of Constantinople. 
13. Give some facts in its early history. 14. The 
year 1453 is a very important date in European his¬ 
tory. Why? 15. What has been the influence of 
the Turks upon Constantinople? 16. Recall a few 
facts about Albania. 17. Describe the surface and 
climate of Greece. 18. Show what advantages the 
ancient Greeks enjoyed. 19. Give facts in the 
early history of Greece. 20. In its later history. 
21. What are the principal industries? 22. Tell 
about Athens; Saloniki. 

1. What reasons can you suggest for the fact 
that these eastern countries are in a constant state 
of unrest? 2. Give a brief state- 
ugges ions m ent of the history of the Turkish 
Empire? 3. How was Greece well situated for the 
trade of the ancient world? 4. Learn some facts 
about Homer, Plato, and other noted Greeks. 
5. Read about the defense of the Pass of Ther¬ 
mopylae. 6. What reasons can you suggest for the 
fact that ancient Greece was divided into several 
independent states, not unlike our own, but lacking 
a federal union? 7. Name the principal cities in 
the Balkan Peninsula, and locate each. 

1. Compare the climate of western Europe with 
that of the west coast of North America (p. 231). 

2. Make the same comparison for 
the eastern parts of the two conti¬ 
nents. 3. What European coun¬ 
tries were covered, either wholly 
or in part, by an ice sheet in the 
Glacial Period (Fig. 363) ? 4. Does 
Europe or North America have the advantage in 
regard to irregular coast line? How is it an advan¬ 
tage? 5. Name and locate the principal mountain 


General review 
questions and 
comparisons 
with North 
America 


ranges in each continent. Which continent has the 
advantage as to the direction of the ranges ? Why 
(p. 387)? 6. Name and locate the principal rivers 
in each continent. Which are the largest in each 
case? 7. Draw an outline map of Europe, insert¬ 
ing the boundaries and names of the countries. 

8. How do our larger Western States compare in 
area with France and Germany? In population? 

9. Which are the two or three most progressive 

countries of Europe? Give reasons. 10. What is 
the prevailing kind of government in Europe ? In 
North America? 11. Which European country 
has the best location for world commerce? Why? 
12. AY hich is best situated for continental com¬ 
merce ? AA r hy (p. 337) ? 13. AVhich country of 

North America has the most favorable position for 
trade? How? 14. Compare in population the five 
largest European cities with the five largest in North 
America (Appendix, p. 451). 15. State the main 

advantages of the position of each of these ten 
cities. 16. Name and locate the five largest sea¬ 
ports of Europe (Fig. 358). 17. How do they com¬ 

pare iu population with New York, Philadelphia, 
Boston, Baltimore, and San Francisco? 18. Name 
and locate the five largest interior cities, and com¬ 
pare their population with that of Chicago, St. Louis, 
Cleveland, Buffalo, and Cincinnati. 19. AA r hat cities 
of Europe and North America are near the 46th par¬ 
allel of latitude ? The 50th? The 60th? 20. Name 
some agricultural products common to both Europe 
and the United States. 21. Name others that are 
found in the United States, but not in Europe. Why 
this difference ? 22. Name the chief wheat-produc¬ 
ing countries of Europe. 23. In what countries of 
Europe is raw silk produced ? AA r hy do we not raise 
silkworms (p. 315) ? 24. In what countries are sugar 
beets extensively produced ? 25. In what countries 
is most lumber obtained? 26. Make a list of the 
European countries which have extensive coal de¬ 
posits. 27. AVhich countries have little or none? 
AVhat is the effect on the industries in each case? 

28. AVhich countries have little or no mining? 

29. Which countries have important manufactur¬ 
ing industries? AVhich have very little manufac¬ 
turing? Give reasons for this difference. 30. AATth 
which group would the United States be classed with 
regard to mining and manufacturing? 31. AVhich 
of the European nations have you seen represented 
on our streets? 32. AVrite a paper stating some of 
the advantages that we enjoy over European coun¬ 
tries. 33. State some of the advantages that they 
enjoy over us. 34. AVhich one of the European 
countries would you prefer to visit? AVhy? 




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PART V. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND 

ISLAND GROUPS 


I. Asia 

1. Through what zones does Asia extend (Fig. 
455)? 2. Vi here are the highest mountains and 
Map study plateaus? 3. What large rivers have 

v y their sources in that region? In 

what direction does each flow? 4. In what sections 
are there extensive plains (Fig. 457) ? 5. What 

large inland seas and lakes do you find which have 
no outlet? 6. What three large peninsulas are on 
the southern side ? 7. What two are on the eastern 

side? 8. What islands lie east of Asia? 9. Name 
the large gulfs and seas along the coast. 10. How 
does Asia compare in size with Europe? 11. Find 
Asia on the globe. 12. How could you reach it, if 
you wished to go there ? 13. What strait separates 

Asia from America? 14. What is the name of the 
isthmus connecting Asia and Africa? 

i. General Facts about Asia 

The main part of Eurasia, which we call 
Asia, is larger than any other continent. 
Area and Indeed, it is greater than North 

population and South America together, 
or Europe and Africa together. 

It has more inhabitants, also, than, any 
other continent. More than one half of all 
the persons on the earth live in Asia; and 
in the one country of China there are nearly 
as many people as in all the countries of 
Europe combined. 

It might be inferred that Asia would be 
one of the best known of the -continents; 
Why little is for it has the oldest civiliza- 
known of Asia tion, and is very near to 
Europe. Besides, a flourishing trade was 
carried on between Europe and the Indies, 
long before the New World was discovered. 
The fact is, however, that Asia, next to 
Africa, is the least known among the 


continents. Let us find some of the reasons 
for this. 

In the first place, although Europe and 
Asia are close together, their x Because of 
leading countries are sepa- arid and desert 
rated by arid country and land in the west 
desert, which is more difficult to cross than 
either mountains or the sea. 

Ehe two great seas in southwestern Asia, 
the Caspian and Aral seas, have no outlets 
and are salt, although large rivers pour 
volumes of fresh water into them. What 
are the names of these rivers ? How does 
the area of these lakes compare with that 
of Lake Superior, the largest of our Great 
Lakes (see Appendix)? While these salt 
seas are of great size, the fact that they 
have no outlets tells very clearly that the 
climate here is dry, for the water evaporates 
faster than the rivers can pour it in. 

Most of the vast region between the 
Irtish River and Africa is either desert or 
arid land (Fig. 458). Estimate the dis¬ 
tance across this arid country from east to 
west. When you realize that it is two or 
three thousand miles, you can see what a 
barrier this section must always have been 
to commerce and to acquaintance between 
the people of the two continents. 

In the second place, we can readily 
see why Siberia—which 2 . Because of 
makes up more than one the extreme 
fourth of the whole continent cold in the nor th 
— should have been little visited, for most 
of it is a very cold country. Note how 
much of it lies in the frigid zone. In 
this section, called the tundras , the ground 


























d 

E 
































































ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


376 



Fig. 458. — A caravan on the desert of Persia. 


is frozen to a great depth all the year 
round. 

The main slope of this vast plain is 
toward the north. Trace its three great 
rivers. What are their names ? Like the 
Mackenzie River in North America, they 
have been of little help in exploring the 
country. Why? 

For several reasons, the vast central 

portion of Asia also has been difficult to 

3. Because of explore. On Figure 456 ob- 

the plateaus, serve how many mountain 
mountains, and . . . 

deserts in the chains are found there. Among 

central part them are the Himalayas, just 

north of India, the loftiest mountain range 


in the world (Fig. 459). Mt. Everest, 
the highest peak, rises over twenty-nine thou¬ 
sand feet, or five and one half miles above 
the level of the sea. Find this mountain 
on Figure 455. How does it compare in 
height with Mont Blanc in the Alps ! (See 
Appendix.) 

There are vast stretches of level land 
among these mountains, but they are 
plateaus, rather than low plains. One 
of them, the plateau of Tibet, is from 
two to three miles above the level of the 
sea, — higher than the peaks of most 
lofty mountains. You know that the 
summits of mountains are cold; so, also, 



Fig. 459. —The Himalaya Mountains, the loftiest mountains in the world. 












ASIA 


377 





are high plateaus. Thus most of the high¬ 
land of Central Asia has a cool or a cold 
climate. 

Much rain and snow falls on the edges 
of this vast highland. Note the rivers that 
find their sources there. The three on the 
north side, crossing Siberia, have already 
been mentioned. What are their names? 
What three are found on the east side, 
emptying into the Pacific? Name several 
on the south side. From this you see that 
most of the great rivers of Asia rise in this 


Fig. 4150. — Fujiyama, a perfect volcanic cone in Japan 


The vast hordes of people living in Asia 
must, therefore, dwell in the eastern and 
southern parts. Most of them live in 
China, Japan, and India (Fig. 461). 

How well do we know those parts of the 
continent ? ()ur limited knowledge of these 

parts of the continent is due more to the 
character of the people living in them than 
to the physical characteristics of thecountries 
themselves. The Chinese, for instance, of 
whom there are such great numbers, are very 
different from Europeans and Americans, 
and, until quite recently, 
they would have nothing 
to do with foreigners. They 
have not been willing to 
admit white people into 
their country even as visi¬ 
tors. How, then, could we 
find out much about them 
and their country ? - 

Until the middle of the last 
century, the Japanese felt and 
acted in the same way toward 
us. India is better known, 
because it has long been under 
the control of the British. 

In recent years the situa¬ 
tion has greatly changed, and 
we are now rapidly becoming 
acquainted with the Asiatic 
people and their continent. 


highland region, just as most of those of 
western Europe rise in the Alps. 

Since the winds lose their vapor on the 
margin of this great highland, its interior 
is largely either desert or arid land. Find 
the Desert of Gobi. 

A region so mountainous, and so cold 
and dry as Central Asia, is difficult to 
explore ; and it is not strange that we 
know little about it even to-day. 

From what has been said about the west¬ 
ern, northern, and central parts of the 
4 . Because Of continent, it is evident that 
the character there can be but few in- 
of the people habitants in those sections. 


2 . Southwestern Asia 

Southwestern Asia is of peculiar interest 
to us. It is here that many of the places 
mentioned in the Bible are why of special 
located (Fig. 467); and here interest 
Jesus was born, as well as the prophet 
Mohammed. It was from this center, also, 
that much of the ancient civilization spread 
along the shores of the Mediterranean. 

A large part of Southwestern Asia is 
tableland, crossed by short Surface and 
mountain ranges. There are cli mate 
also a number of extinct volcanoes, such as 
Mount Ararat. 










378 


ASIA , AFRICA, AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 


There is little rainfall except along the 
coast of the Mediterranean and Black seas. 
The country is, therefore, mainly arid or 
desert ; the streams are usually short and 
shallow, and there are numerous salt lakes. 
Point ou-t the two principal rivers (Fig. 
467). 

Some of the mountain slopes are covered 
with forest ; but most of the country is 
Industries open, and suited mainly to 
and products herding, though there is some 
agriculture. In the valleys wheat, grapes, 
olives, figs, oranges, and cotton are raised, 
usually by the aid of irrigation. Both the 
herding and farming are carried on in 
much the same way as in the Bible times. 
The valuable minerals are scarcely worked 
at all ; and there is almost no manufac¬ 
turing except that done by hand (Fig. 
464). Some of this work, however, espe¬ 
cially tapestry and rugs, is very beautiful. 


In this region, Turkey formerly con¬ 
trolled the territory of Smyrna, Armenia, 
Syria, the Holy Land, Mesopotamia, Hejas, 
Azir, and Yemen. Locate these countries 
on the map (Fig. 455) and notice the 
present size of Turkey. 

There are two parts of Southwestern 
Asia that merit special study on account 
of their history ; namely, (1) 

Palestine or the Holy Land , 
and (2) the valley of the 
Euphrates and Tigris rivers, 
or Mesopotamia. 

The Holy Land has a nearly straight 
coast with no good harbors, i. The Holy 
and back of it is a narrow Land 
coastal plain. Beyond this are two low 
mountain ranges, and between them is the 
remarkable depression at the bottom of 
which is the Dead Sea. While the village 
of Hebron (Fig. 467), on the western moun- 


Two especially 
important 
parts of 
Southwestern 
Asia 



Okhotsk Sea 


EMPIRE OF 
kTokio 


Japan Sea 


JAPAN 1 


'Osaka 


Tientsin 




^Shanghai 
ilangebau, 
JSuchau * 


'uchau. 


s' \ * Arabian _Sea 


SJpyTanton. 


Bombay 


ASIA 


China Sea 


Bay of Bengal 


Density of Population 

Under 2 inhabitants.per sq. mile 
2 to 64 44 “ •* 

64 to 256 44 44 44 

256 to 512 441 4fc « 

Over 512 4r 4 * 44 

Cities with over 500,000 
inhabitants are shown 


(Madras 


Fig. 461. — Map showing Density of Population of Asia. 


















CHEETAH 


COBRA 




ORANG-OUTANG 


CROCODILE 


PEACOCK 


BUFFALO 


CAMEL 


DROMEDARY 


RHINOCEROS 


The M.N.Co,Buffaio. 


TIGER 


ELEPHANT 


m 


Fig. 462. — Some of the wild animals of Asia. 





380 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 



Before its possession 
by the Jews, this region 
was divided into small 
countries, often under 
the rule of their more 
advanced and powerful 


Fig. 464. — Native spinning wheels in Palestine, using the same methods as in the 

days of Christ. 



neighbors in northwestern Africa, the 
Egyptians. Then the Jews entered this 
“ promised land ” and created ^ Important 
a kingdom which rose to its events that 
highest power under King Evened here 
Solomon. It was here that many of the 
events in the Old Testament took place, in¬ 
cluding the advance in religion from the 
worship of many gods to the belief in one 
all-powerful God. Persians, Egyptians, 
and Romans later ruled over Palestine ; 
and it was during the control of the Romans 
that Jesus was born at Bethlehem 
(Fig. 466). What events in the life of 
Jesus can you mention that occurred at 
some of the places marked on the map 
(Fig. 467)? 

At that time, as we learn from the Bible, 

the region was highly developed. Wheat 

was raised upon the uplands, 

r 1 . (3) Former 

and olives, figs, and grapes m products and 

the valleys, while herds of commerce of 
, . -i ,, Palestine 

sheep were pastured on the 
plateaus and mountains. Recall events 
from the Bible that indicate these occupa¬ 
tions. 

Palestine lay on the great caravan route 
which, leading from Egypt to the distant 
east, ran northward, as far as Damascus 


Fig. 463. — A Mohammedan priest in eastern Asia. 


tain range, is about three thousand feet 
above sea level, the surface of the Dead 
(1) its surface Sea, a few miles to the east, is 
and climate almost thirteen hundred feet 
below sea level. This is, in fact, the deep¬ 
est depression on the lands of the earth. 


The river Jordan flows along this depression, 
coming out of a fresh-water lake, called the Sea 
of Galilee (Fig. 465), and emptying into the Dead 
Sea. But this is such a 
desert region that the water 
evaporates too fast for the 
Dead Sea to have an outlet. 

The sea is so salt that no 
living things can exist there, 
and the salt makes the water 
so dense that a person cannot 
even sink in it. The Jordan 
Valley and the Dead Sea lie 
no farther south than south¬ 
ern Alabama; yet, partly be¬ 
cause the region is so low 
and inclosed, its climate is 
almost tropical. 









ASIA 


381 




(Fig. 455), in order to 
avoid the Syrian desert. 
Throngs of people, there¬ 
fore, passed this way. 
Jerusalem (Fig. 468), 
the capital, was a large 
and beautiful city situ¬ 
ated upon a lofty ele¬ 
vation that made it an 
important stronghold. 
It was famous for its 
public buildings, in par¬ 
ticular the “ Temple of 
Solomon.” 

Mesopotamia includes 
the fertile valleys of 


the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It was 
formerly crossed by a network of irrigation 
canals, and was called in the 
Bible “a garden of the Lord.” 
But it has been overrun by 
the Arabs and Turks, until it 
is now almost a waste. Baby¬ 
lon and Nineveh, once great cities, and the 
seats of a wonderful civilization, are now 
marked only by mounds of ruins. The 
site of the Tower of Babel is believed to 
have been at Babylon, and the ruins of the 


Fig. 405. — Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee in the Holy Land. 

palace of Nebuchadnezzar are still to be 


2. Mesopo¬ 
tamia 

(1) Its ancient 
history 


Armenia 
which the 


Fig. 406. - Pilgrims entering Bethlehem on Christmas day. It was here mat 
. Jesus was born. 


seen there. 

There is now little commerce in this land, though 
steamboats can go up the Tigris as far as Bagdad. 
This city, situated on the caravan 
route to the East, was of much im- 
portance in ancient times. There is 
still some trade between Europe and India along 
this route. A railroad to connect Bagdad with 
Europe by the way of Constantinople is already 
partly built. 

is a mountainous region, in 
Tigris, Euphrates, and other 
rivers rise. It is the home 
of one of the oldest civilized 
peoples in the other coun- 
world. Under tries of this 
Turkish rule, re S ion 
the Armenians, who are 
Christians, were bitterly per¬ 
secuted. The people are 
intelligent and industrious. 
Agriculture is the chief 
occupation. Grains, cotton, 
tobacco, and fruits are pro¬ 
duced. Cattle, sheep, and 
goats are raised. 

Syria is a narrow strip 
of mountainous country be¬ 
tween the Mediterranean on 
the west and Mesopotamia 
and Arabia on the east. 
Palestine, or the Holy Land, 











Waters of 
Merutn,■, 


Kedesh 


’tolemais 

v (_AcchoJ_ 


Chorazin 


To Dam*' 


CaheniduiiL 
Sea of eL_/ 
<Galileeff~- 


fj Tiberias; 


Nazaretlv 


Plain j 0/ 


Bethabara? 


<0 \ 

Arbela « 


qraelon 


icythopoljs 


ih^T ella 

'E\VC:;,A p 


Salii 1 / 

' T .\ 11 1 

,Lnon 


Dion? 


.4*non 


Shechenv 


sychar 
Jacob's Well 


\ MLGerizii 


Antipatris 


Mt.Gilead 


(Joppa)) 


Shiloh 


o Rainoth Gilead' 


.Lydda 


Rabbath Ammon 
'-(Philadelphia) 


(Rama 


Emmaus 


JERUSALE 


t. of Oliues 
Bethany 


Bethlehei 


AskMon. 


Macho?rus 


Hebron' 


Beer-sheba 5 ^ 


Williams Engraving Co. 


Greenwich 


34 30' 


35 r 30' 


HOLY LAND 

Scale of Miles 


Achzib 


0 5 10 15 20 25 

Railroads ■“ Highways == ==::=:: 
Dry River Bed-— -—— 


Part of Jordan Valley below Sea Level, 
shown in purple 


Caesarea 


Jaffa 


34 > 30' 


Longitude 


Eu( 


FIG. 467 
































































































A ST A 


383 



Fig. 468. — A view of Jerusalem as it appears to-day. 



was formerly included in Syria and both 
were under the control of the Turks. 
Damascus, the chief city, and Aleppo are 
important trade centers. 

The Arabian Peninsula is an arid plateau, 
several thousand feet in elevation. What 
waters border it ? The climate is hot along 
the coast, but cooler on the plateau 
and among the mountains. 

There are few people in Arabia, 
and these are largely nomadic. 

Coffee raised near Mocha, fruits, 
especially dates, and vegetables 
are grown. Cattle, sheep, 
goats, donkeys, horses, and 
camels are raised in large 
numbers. 

Hejas, an independent 
kingdom since 1916, is 
important because of 
the cities of Mecca 


pects to make a pilgrimage to this city at 
least once during his lifetime. By sea and 
land these pilgrims come in tremendous 
crowds every year. 

3. Persia and Afghanistan 

Persia, like Arabia, is an elevated table¬ 
land, with large tracts of desert 
that are of little or 
no use to man. 

The best agricultural district 
is near the Caspian Sea, where 
there is rainfall enough for 
crops. Elsewhere the cli¬ 
mate is so arid that irri¬ 
gation is necessary for 
farming. The chief 
farm products are to¬ 
bacco, wheat, barley, 
cotton, and opium. 
Much silk also is 
produced, and roses 
are cultivated for the 
manufacture of the 
perfume, attar of 
roses. 

Nearly two million 
Persians belong to 


and Medina, the 
holy places of the Mo¬ 
hammedans. Mecca, 
the capital, is the 
birthplace of Mo¬ 
hammed and every 
Mohammedan ex- 


Fig. 469.-— A Persian girl in native costume. 













384 


ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 



nomadic tribes (Figs. 458 and 
470) that roam about the 
desert, dwelling in tents, and 
herding goats, sheep, and 
other animals. 

There are some valuable 
minerals, including the pre¬ 
cious stone, turquoise. Pre¬ 
cious pearls and pearl shells, 
are found in the waters of the 
Persian Gulf. 

Almost the only manufac¬ 
turing is that done by hand 
(Fig. 471); and the Persians, 
like the Turks, do some very 
beautiful hand weaving, not¬ 
ably of shawls and rugs. 

Their carving and inlaid 
metal work and woodwork 
also are very artistic. 

The government of Persia has long 
resembled that of Turkey, and has there¬ 
fore been bad. The ruler, the Shah, lias 
been an absolute monarch, controlling the 


Fig. 470. — Persian nomads and their home. 


lives and property of his subjects, who 
are mostly Mohammedans. For the last 
few years the government of the whole 
country has been under the control of a 



Fig. 471.-Persian women making a rug by hand. These people are so 
backwaid that they have not learned to use modern machinery; hut 
their hand work is very beautiful. 


cabinet with departments simi¬ 
lar to the cabinet departments 
of our own government. This 
cabinet appoints the governors 
of the provinces into which 
Persia is divided. Among the 
important cities are Teheran, 
the capital and largest city, and 
Tabriz, the leading commercial 
and industrial center. 

Afghanistan, “one of the waste 
places of the world,” is a region of 
sand, bare rocks, and . , , 
snow-capped moun- Af g hanistan 
tains. Only in the valleys is the 
soil made to yield a harvest; and 
even there the cold, blustering win¬ 
ters and the dry, scorching summers 
make the worst of climates. Like 
other Asiatic countries so far studied, 
Afghanistan is badly governed. The 
ruler, the merciless Amir, keeps his 
authority by the terror he inspires 
among his subjects. Nestled among 
the lofty mountains is Kabul, the 
seat of the government. 


















ASIA 


385 



4. Central Asia. Siberia 

This vast section of the Asiatic territory 
includes about one-eighth of the land sur- 
Its best- face of the globe. The best- 

settled part settled section is the south¬ 
western part, called Central Asia. Find 
this place on the map. Even this part 
is thinly inhabited, for the region is 
arid and desert, like the countries farther 
south. 

The occupations, also, are similar to those 
of southwestern Asia. Herding is the 


principal industry on the arid steppes and 
deserts; sheep, horses, cattle, and camels 
being raised. In the river valleys and on 
the oases, corn, fruits, tobacco, cotton, hemp, 
and the silkworm are the principal products. 

There is very little manufacturing beyond 
the making of rugs, shawls, and cloth, by 
hand. Many hand-made rugs from Bokhara 
and Khiva are sold in the United States. 

The northern portion, a land of frozen tundras, is 
the coldest region on any of the i eas t_ 
continents. The few people who live gettle( j p art 
there resemble the Eskimos. They 

keep herds of reindeer, which 
supply them with milk, meat, and 
hides, besides serving as draft ani¬ 
mals (Fig. 473). 

The middle part of Siberia 
is a vast plain which, though 
little settled as its most 
yet, is the most promising part 

promising section for the 
future. It has much good 
soil, and is suited to the pro¬ 
duction of grains. 1 here is 
much forest here, and in the 
mountains valuable minerals 
are found, including gold, and 
graphite, or “black lead, 
from which pencils are 
made. 

One reason why this region 



From Ratzel’s “ History of Mankind." 


Fig 473 - A camp in the tundra of northern Asia. The reindeer are used 
for drawing the sleighs and also as a source of milk and meat, 













386 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


has not been better settled is the fact that 
it has been difficult to reach. The rivers, 
which flow northward, have not been of 
much use, and until lately there have been 
no railroads. The Russian government 
has built a railroad all the way across Si¬ 
beria, so that it is now possible to travel 
by rail from Petrograd to Poet Arthur 
on the Chinese coast. About how far is 
that ? 

There are several important cities in this 
section of Asia. The largest in the southwest 

is Tarhkend ; and the city 
Leading cities „ ,, . , . . 

of Bokhara is next in size. 

Tiflis, between the Black and Caspian 
seas, is really in Asia, though the Russian 
government classes this region with its 
European provinces. It is about the size 
of Tashkend. In Siberia there are no large 
cities, though several along the railway, 
including Irkutsk and Vladivostok, are 
now growing rapidly. 


5. Republic of China 


Russia has long used Siberia as a prison, and 

thousands of prisoners have been sent there; 

many of them not because they have committed 

„ , . crime, but 

Use of Siberia , ,, 

because they 

as a prison , ., 

have said or 

done something that the 
Russian rulers did not like. 

Some, even, have been merely 
suspected of saying or doing- 
something. Many have been 
seized by officers and thrown 
into prison without a mo¬ 
ment’s warning; then, with¬ 
out trial, they have been 
transported to Siberia to 
work in the mines. Men and 
women of the highest char¬ 
acter have thus been torn 
from their families and 
hurried away so secretly 
that not even their friends 
knew what had become of 
them. 

Such treatment shows the 
meaning of a despotic form 
of government. It also shows 
us very clearly how fortunate 
we are in living under such 
a government as our own. 


Some of the most important arts that 
man has ever learned have come from the 
Chinese. For instance, they Former 
made porcelain dishes long be- progress of 
fore the Europeans knew how, the Chinese 
and on that account such dishes are still 
called chinaware , even though manufactured 
in the United States. 

They invented gunpowder, and our fire¬ 
crackers for the Fourth of July formerly 
came from China. You have doubtless 
seen the Chinese letters on the outside of 
packages. They also discovered how to 
make silk and paper, and they invented 
the art of printing. 


The 

Great Wall 


The Chinese were a highly developed people and 
a powerful nation long before the 
time of Christ. This is shown by 
the Great Wall that they built along 
their northern frontier in the year 212 n.c. 

This wall, which was built to keep out invaders, 
is twelve hundred miles long in a straight line, and 
more than fifteen hundred miles long with all of its 
windings. It leads up and down hill (Fig. 474), 
and even over a mountain peak. The wall is twenty- 



Fig. 474. — A view of a part of the great Chinese wall. 






ASIA 


387 



five feet wide and thirty feet high, and every few 
hundred feet there are strong watch towers rising still 
higher. Although this wonderful structure, which 
required armies of men to build, is now more than two 
thousand years old, many parts of it are still perfect. 

This strange race was once among the 
Their back- foremost nations of the earth ; 
wardnessnow, hut now it is very much be- 
with reasons hind the Great Powers of 
Europe and the New World. 

This is partly explained by the fact that 


A second cause for the backwardness of 
the Chinese has been their poor govern¬ 
ment. Until 1912 that was an absolute 
monarchy with a governor, or viceroy , for 
each province, one of whose duties it was 
to collect money for the government, but 
who, in some ways, was independent. 
The Emperor was not a Chinaman, but 
belonged to the Manchu division of the 
yellow race, which invaded and con¬ 
quered China in 1644. This form of gov- 


Fig. 475. — A Chinese family engaged in ancestor worship. 


the Chinese believe that whatever their 
ancestors did, they must do. This is called 
ancestor worship. Since their fathers had 
no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, they 
have wanted none themselves. Also, be¬ 
cause of their dislike of new things, they 
have neither traveled much abroad, nor 
allowed foreigners to visit them. Indeed, 
they have looked down upon foreigners, or, 
as they call them, “ foreign devils,” who 
have so many strange customs. 


eminent finally became so unpopular that 
the Chinese rose in rebellion and estab¬ 
lished a republic. It is thought now that 
with this popular government great prog¬ 
ress will take place in China. 

It is quite possible that China will yet 
rank as one of the Great Possible 
Powers of the earth. Her strength of 
enormous population, which future ^ ^ 
is nearly as large as that of all ^ Area and 
Europe, and three times that population 








388 


ASIA, AFRICA. AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 




of the United States, gives her 
one great advantage. Her 
area, which is greater than that 
of the United States, gives her 
a second advantage. 


Fig. 476. —Chinese farm scenes. These terraces have been built by the 
Chinese, so that they can cultivate even the steep bill slopes. 


The enormous population of China 
is not spread evenly throughout the 
whole country (Fig. 461). There 
are some sections where very few 
people live, either because the climate 
is too cold or too arid, or because the 
country is too mountainous. Popula¬ 
tion is sparse, for instance, in Tibet, 

Turkestan, and Mongolia, which to¬ 
gether make up half of the republic. 

There are some sections, as in the 
Desert of Gobi, where even grazing 
cannot be carried on. 

On the other hand, vast hordes of 
Chinese live on the river flood plains 
and deltas of the south and east. 

This is, indeed, the most densely settled large 
area on the globe. These flood plains and deltas 
are very broad and fertile, especially in the lower 
portions of the Hoang-ho and Yangtse rivers. 

While the flood plains and deltas make excellent 
farm land, they are in constant danger of floods, and 
are therefore not very safe places to live in. The 
Hoang-ho, for instance, may rise as much as forty 
feet in summer, and sometimes it overflows all the 
low country on either side. There have been many 
destructive floods, a single one of which destroyed 
a million lives. Because of the repeated destruction 


Fig. 477. — A Chinese lady being carried 

moil way of traveling in China. 


of life and property due to such floods, the Hoang- 
ho has been called “ China’s Sorrow.” 

A third advantage which China enjoys 
is her great variety of climate. Observe 
through what zones the re- 2. Variety of 
public extends. How much climate 
farther south does it reach than our most 
southern state, Florida ? How much far¬ 
ther north than our most northern states ? 
Naturally, then, the variety of 
climate is even greater than our 
own, and hence the agricultural 
products may be even more varied. 
As in our country, some parts are 
desert, some arid, and some have 
abundant rainfall. 

There are many kinds of soil, 
too. There are extensive plains, 
some of them broad 3 . The surface 
river flood plains and features 
deltas ; some sections are plateaus; 
and there are also lofty mountain 
ranges. 

In so large a country, with so 
many differences in climate, soil, 
and surface features, there are cer¬ 
tain to be many resources. Let us 
see what the principal ones are. 


by two men — a very com- 











ASIA 


389 



In northern and western China, the 
climate is arid, and there are some exten¬ 
sive deserts. Here the principal products 
are meat, wool, and hides. South and east 
of this there is rainfall enough for agricul- 
ture. Here the products of the 
temperate zone, such as wheat, 

4 . Resources C tl 11 lie laised. 

( 1 ) Agricul- What other grains 
turai products an d agricultural 
products have you found in the 
northern half of the United 
States? All these can be raised 
in this part of China. 

Central China, just south of 
this section, has a warm, tem¬ 
perate climate. Here cotton, 
rice, millet, oranges, and silk 
are produced. Rice is one of 
the chief articles of food for the 
Chinese, and China produces 


Thus China produces all the crops that the 
United States does, and more. Name some 
of their products that we do not raise. 

The farming methods are very crude, but the 
Chinese are so skillful and industrious, that they till 


every bit of land possible (Fig. 476). 
For example, instead of leading water 
for irrigation only to land of gentle 
slope, as in the United States, they 
often take it to the very hilltops. It 
is first raised from the river by means 
of wheels, turned either by men or by 
buffaloes, and then pumped upward 
from one terrace to the next, until the 
whole hillside is watered. Such meth¬ 
ods could not be used unless labor 
were very cheap. A Chinese laborer 
receives only about ten cents a day as 
wages. 


Fig. 479. — A Chinese passenger wheelbarrow, on which people are carried. 


more raw silk than any other country in 
the world. 

The extreme southern part of the repub¬ 
lic extends into the tropical zone. Here 
we find tropical fruits such as grow in 
Central America and the West Indies. 
Name several of them. 


fishing 
(2) Fishing 


There is valuable 
along the coast. 

The Chinese make 
much use of fish as an article of 
food, catching them from the rivers as well 
as from the sea. They even train birds to 
catch fish for them. 

The Chinese have never been noted as 

miners, and therefore little 

i , , ,, • , (3) Minerals 

is known about the mineral 

wealth of the country. Still it is certain 


Fig. 47S. — A Chinese village, with bam¬ 
boo houses, on the banks of a canal. 











390 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


that there are vast deposits of coal of the 
very best quality, some of it hard coal, like 
that of eastern Pennsylvania. There are 
also extensive deposits of iron, gold, silver, 
and other valuable minerals. 

The Chinese are an artistic people, and 
they make very beautiful chinaware and 
5. Manufac- silk fabrics; but they still do 
turing most of the work by hand, as 

has been the custom for thousands of years. 

They carry on other kinds of manufacturing, also, 
mainly by hand. There is, for instance, much use 
made of the bamboo, whose wood is used in build¬ 
ing houses (Fig. “±78), as well as in making nearly 
all articles of furniture. The bamboo is also woven 
into mats, baskets, and hats; and from its pulp 
paper is made; the seeds also are ground up for 
food, while the tender roots and stalks are eaten. 

There are so many industrious, intelligent people in 
China, and there are such vast resources, that when 
China once adopts modern methods of manufactur¬ 
ing she will doubtless take a leading place among 
the nations of the world. It may happen, even, 
that China will be able to make and sell goods more 
cheaply than can be done in Europe or America. 


Fig. 480. — A Chinese pagoda, or temple, 
where the people worship. 




The natural means of transportation in 
China also are excellent. There are many 


good harbors, especially at the mouths of 
the rivers; and these rivers are open to 
the easiest way 6. Means of 
of navigation far transportation 

into the interior. Even now, 
the easiest way of getting 
into the interior of China is 
by boat, especially on the 
Yangtseand Idoang-ho rivers. 
Trace these rivers. 

The Chinese have built 
a number of canals (Fig. 
478), and these have been 
used for centuries. Find the 
Grand Canal on the map, 
and tell what cities it con¬ 
nects. It was built twelve 
hundred years ago. Rail¬ 
ways and electric cars, being 
new inventions, have been 
much disliked by the people. 
For that reason there are, 
even now, few of these in 
this vast republic. 


Fig. 481. — A caravan of camels, outside the walls of Peking. 
















ASIA 


391 


The Chinese methods of transportation have been, 
and are still, very crude. It has been the custom for 
men to take the place of horses to a large extent, 
carrying goods on their backs, and drawing both 
people and freight in vehicles of various kinds 
(Fig. 477). 

One of the principal vehicles is the wheelbarrow 
(Fig. 479), which can be used even where the roads 
are very narrow. There are more than two thousand 
passenger wheelbarrows in Shanghai alone. It is 
said that passengers sometimes travel from Shanghai 
to Peking, a distance of six hundred miles, in 
wheelbarrows. Labor is so cheap that it costs about 
twenty cents a day, or at the rate of about half a 
cent a mile, for each passenger, two traveling in a 
single wheelbarrow. This is about one sixth as 
expensive as the passenger rate on some of our rail¬ 
ways. The passengers in the wheelbarrow, how¬ 
ever, do not go as far in a whole day as we go on 
our trains in two hours! 


Of late, the Chinese have been rapidly 
changing their customs. They are now 
7. Recent sending hundreds of their able 
advances young men to Europe and to 

America to learn about our arts and indus¬ 
tries. They are inviting foreigners into 
their country, are building railroads, and 
improving their laws. 

These indications of progress, together 
with the changes in their form of govern¬ 
ment already spoken of (page 387), show 
that the Chinese are awakening at last, and 
it seems likely that they will make wonder¬ 
ful progress in the future. 

You have already learned that a large 

portion of the Chinese live along the coast 

and the lower courses of the 
Chief cities rn , 

rivers. 1 here are so many 

people here that scores of thousands can 
find no room on the land, but live in house¬ 
boats on the water. Many others dig caves 
in the hillsides and live in them. 

In this section there are many large 
cities. The largest is Canton, which, sit- 
l. Canton and uated on a densely populated 
Hongkong delta, is a port of outlet for 

southern China. Canton is noted especially 
for its silk. 

Hongkong, an island which commands 
the approach to Canton, belongs to the 
British. Many of the products of China 


are sent from this port to Europe and 
America. 

Hankau and Wuchang, on the Yang- 
tse Biver, are important river ports for tea. 
Here, as in the case of most 2 . Cities on the 
Chinese cities, the number of Yan gtse River 
inhabitants is uncertain. For example, by 
some estimates Hankau has a population of 
more than a million ; by others only a half 
million. 

Shanghai also is a large city. It is a 
treaty port; that is, one where foreigners 
are allowed by treaty to carry on trade. 
This is not permitted in all Chinese cities. 

Peking, the capital of China, was the 
capital of a kingdom for three thousand 
years, and the capital of the 3 . Peking and 
Chinese Empire for over eight Tie “tsin 
centuries. This city, like others in China, 
is surrounded by a high wall (Fig. 481) 
with gates that are closed at night. Many 
European cities in olden times were so pro¬ 
tected. One portion of the city, formerly 
reserved for the gardens and palaces of the 
emperor, is known as the “ Forbidden City,' ' 
because the Chinese government formerly 
refused to allow foreigners to enter it. 

Tientsin, the port nearest Peking, is 
an important seaport. It is situated at the 
northern end of the Grand Canal. 

6 . The Japanese Empire 

Japan is only a little more than one 
tenth as large as China, and has only 
one eighth as many inhab- Area and 
itants. It is not much larger population 
than the British Isles in area and popula¬ 
tion. 

On the map (Fig. 455) find the two 
largest islands, Housliu and Yezo. Find 
Formosa, the most southern island of the 
Empire. The Kurile Islands and the south¬ 
ern half of Sakhalin Island also are included 
in the Empire. Locate these islands. Es¬ 
timate the greatest length of the Empire 
from north to south. 

Japan is, as you see, an island empire 








392 


ASIA , AFRICA , d J7S7’i?^lLZ^, diVZ> LSLdiVD GROUPS 



like the British Isles. No part of the 
country is far from the sea, and therefore 
the Japanese, like the British, have a 
favorable position for commerce. 

The Japanese, like their neighbors, the 
Chinese, belong to the yellow race. Like 
Advances them, also, they have a very 
since 1853 ancient civilization. For a 
long time the Japanese, like the 
Chinese, wanted nothing to do 
with foreigners. In 1853, how¬ 
ever, an American naval officer, 

Commodore Perry, entered the 
harbor of Yokohama with sev¬ 
eral war ships, and persuaded 
the Japanese to allow us to 
trade with them. 

Since that time the Japanese 
have made wonderful advances. 

They have built railways and 
have established lines of steam¬ 
ships to many parts of the world. 

They have introduced the tele¬ 
phone and the telegraph, have 
established many newspapers 
and many schools of all grades. 

At the same time they have 
made such progress in manu¬ 
facturing that they are now one 
of the leading manufacturing 
nations of the world. 

Some years ago the Japanese • 
won a victory over Russia and 
took control of Korea which 
they call Chosen. 

More recently, after the 
World War, Japan secured con¬ 
trol of the Marshall, Caroline, Pelew, and 
Padrone groups of islands in the Pacific. 
Locate each (Fig. 518). Locate the Shan¬ 
tung Peninsula in Eastern China (Fig. 
455). Japan at the same time also se¬ 
cured control of the city of Kiau Chau on 
this peninsula. 

Probably no nation has ever advanced 
more rapidly than has Japan during the 
last fifty years. Perhaps the most im¬ 
portant of all reasons for this astonishing 


growth has been the eagerness of the Jap¬ 
anese to learn. Soon after „ , 

. . Reasons for 

Commodore Perry s visit, they this wonderful 

invited foreigners to come as advance 

teachers, and sent thousands 1 Eagerness 
P .. . , . to learn 

of their young men abroad, 

to study in the United States and in 

Europe. 








Fig. 482. — A Japanese coolie carrying water. 

A second reason for the progress of the 
Japanese is their good government. Be¬ 
fore 1853 the real power was 2. a good 
in the hands of the noblemen, government 
who had large numbers of peasants to work 
for them and to fight in their wars. This 
was somewhat like the condition in Europe 
in the Middle Ages, which was called the 
feudal system. 

After Commodore Perry’s visit a new 
government was established in which the 








ASIA 


393 



people had a voice. There is an emperor, 
called the Mikado (Mg'. 483), and a legisla¬ 
ture with two houses, one elected by the 
people. The government is, therefore, a 
limited monarchy. 

4 he valuable resources of the country 
are a third reason for the advance of Japan. 

3. The natural ^ climate is everywhere 
resources of the moist enough for agriculture, 
and the temperature is also 
favorable. In what zone does most of 
Japan lie? In what 
zone is the rest of the 
Empire ? Although a 
large part of the sur¬ 
face is mountainous 
(Fig. 460), there is yet 
much excellent soil. 

The people have 
learned to cultivate it 
very skillfully, too, al¬ 
lowing no land to lie 
idle that can possibly 
be used for crops. 

About one sixth of 
the surface of the Em¬ 
pire is cultivated. 

The long distance 
through which the 
islands extend from 
north to south makes 
it possible to raise 
many different kinds 
of crops. Measure to 
see how far it is from 
Yezo, on the north, to Formosa, on the 
south. What is the latitude of the north¬ 
ern and of the southern boundaries ? The 
crops in the north are the products of the 
cool temperature zone ; those in the south, 
and especially in Formosa, are such as are 
common to the tropical zone. Japan, 
like China, produces much tea, silk (Fig. 
485), and rice (Fig. 484); and, as among 
other Mongolians, rice is one of the chief 
articles of food. Among other farm prod¬ 
ucts are wheat, vegetables, fruits, and sugar 
cane. 


There are also valuable forest trees, including 
the camphor, the laurel, and the lacquer trees, which 
grow in the forests that clothe the mountain sides. 

Another resource of great value is the fish in the 
waters surrounding the Empire. Fully two and a 
half million Japanese are engaged in fishing, and 
fish form one of the important foods of this island 
people. 

This small country has important min¬ 
eral resources, including gold, copper, iron, 
coal, and petroleum. There is also excel¬ 
lent water power for use in manufacturing. 

A fourth reason for 
the wonderful progress 

of Japan 4. Cheap and 
is that la- skillful labor 

box* is very cheap there, 
as in China; and that 
the Japanese are very 
skillful workmen. In 
the United States one 
often sees especially 
beautiful fans, para¬ 
sols, napkins, dolls, and 
screens that were made 
in Japan. Whatever 
the Japanese make, 
they try to make beau¬ 
tiful. 

A fifth reason for • 
the advance of the 
Japanese 5 The 

is the growth of 
growth of man u f acturing 

manufacturing. They 
have learned methods 
of manufacturing from Eui’opeans and 
Americans. Therefore, with their skill and 
industry, their cheap labor, and their abun¬ 
dance of raw materials, fuels, and water 
power, this industry has grown greatly. 
In silk manufacturing, especially, they have 
taken high rank. They are also very skill¬ 
ful in making pottery; and they manu¬ 
facture much cotton and woolen cloth, as 
well as iron goods, including machinery 
and ships. 

A final reason for the rapid advance of 
Japan is its favorable situation for ocean 


Fig. 483. — Yoshiliito, Emperor, or Mikado, of Japan. 






394 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 



Fig. 484. — Planting rice in the flooded fields of Japan. 


commerce. In this respect it resembles 
6 . Advantages the British Isles. The coast 
for commerce i s very long, and there are 
many good harbors. 

The islands are so narrow, and so moun¬ 
tainous, that there can be no large navi¬ 
gable rivers. But these are not greatly 
needed, for almost all parts of the Empire 
are near the sea and can therefore be 
reached by ocean vessels. Short railroad 
lines also extend into the interior and con¬ 
nect the seaports. 


Japan suffers some serious drawbacks, however. 
For example, many of the islands are small, and all 
of them are mountainous. They are 

the crests of a great mountain range , 

. & advantage 

rising from the bottom of the sea, 

and some of the peaks are volcanoes (Fig. 460). 
The mountains are still rising, too, and as they rise, 
the rocks now and then break apart and change 
their positions, causing earthquakes. Sometimes 
these shocks are so powerful that houses are thrown 
down, causing great destruction of life and property. 
Japan has been visited by many terrible earthquakes. 

The great number of earthquakes has caused 
the Japanese to build low houses of light materials, 















ASIA 


395 



Japan gained control of Chosen in 

1905, as a result of the war with 

Russia. This rnoun- 
, . -ii Chosen 

tamous peninsula has 

a temperate climate, suited to the 

production of such crops as grains 

in the north, and rice, tobacco, and 

cotton in the south. 

In many respects the inhabitants 
resemble the Chinese; in fact, Chosen 
was for a long time a dependency of 
China. While there are great nat¬ 
ural resources, including both coal and 
iron, little use has been made of them. 
Like the Chinese, the inhabitants 
formerly forbade foreigners to enter 
their country. This is indicated by 
the name “Hermit Kingdom,” long 
applied to Chosen. But since the Jap¬ 
anese have obtained control of Chosen, 
there has been much progress. The 
capital and the largest city is Seoul. 


7. Indo-China and the Malay 
Peninsula 


Fig. 486. — A Japanese laborer drawing a two-wheeled vehicle called a 
jinrikisha. A common way of going about the cities. 


such as bamboo, which withstand the shaking. 
Even if they are thrown down, they are not so 
dangerous to life as those made of stone or other 
heavy materials. 


This peninsula is crossed from 
north to south by several moun¬ 
tain chains, with long, narrow Surface and 
valleys between. The flood principal 
plains and deltas of the rivers divisions 


Tokyo, a city about as 
large as Chicago, is the capi- 

. . . . tal of Japan. 

Principal cities . . 

Hesides being 

the home of the Mikado, and 
therefore having many gov¬ 
ernment buildings, it is a 
busy manufacturing center. 
Yokohama, at the entrance 
of Tokyo Bay, is the leading 
seaport of Japan. 

The second city in size is 
Osaka, noted for its cotton 
manufactures, and having a 
population of over a million. 
Other important cities are 
Kyoto, the former capital, 
and the center of the tea dis¬ 
trict, and Nagoya, a center 
for porcelain manufacturing. 



Fig. 487. — A family of Indian Brahmans of high caste. 










396 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 



in these valleys are very fertile and are 
densely populated. Name the largest two 
of these rivers. 

In addition to Burma, which is a part of 
the Indian Empire, there are three divisions 
of the peninsula: (1) Siam , (2) French Indo- 
China , and (3) the British colonies of Straits 
Settlements and Malay 
States. They are all 
tropical countries. 

Most of the inhabit¬ 
ants of Siam live along 
the rivers 

Siam i ,i 

and the 

irrigation canals. 

They are engaged 
chiefly in the cultiva¬ 
tion of rice ; but millet 
also, which is raised 
in the drier places, is 
much used for food. 

Among the mineral 
products are rubies, 
sapphires, gold, and 
tin. The forests yield 
valuable tropical 
woods. 

Bangkok is the 
capital and the largest 
city. Here are the 
magnificent palaces of 
the king, and many 
Buddhist temples, dec¬ 
orated with gold and 
silver, and even with 
jewels. Next to the 
king, the white ele¬ 
phant is held in highest reverence, and 
Siam is often called “ the Land of the White 
Elephant.” 

French Indo-China resembles Siam in 
both climate and people. Its forest-covered 
French hills yield valuable teak and 

Indo-China ironwood, and in its valleys 
are extensive fields of rice and millet. Silk, 
cotton, tea, and spices are other products, 
and there are also extensive coal beds. Some 
coal is exported. 


Fjg. 488 — An Indian woman of low caste 


The Straits Settlements and Malay States 
are the two names given to the British pos¬ 
sessions on the southern end straits Settle- 
of the Malay Peninsula and ments and 
some small islands near by. Mala Y States 
In that hot, damp country, so near the 
equator, such tropical products as rice, 

cocoanuts, rubber, and 
spices are obtained. 
There are extensive 
deposits of tin in this 
region, which supplies 
more than half the tin 
used in the world. 
The only city of impor¬ 
tance is SlNGAPOKE. 

8 . The Indian Empire 

India, the central one 
of the three peninsulas 
on the Area and 
southern population 
side of Asia, is about 
half as large as the 
United States, but it 
contains more than 
three times as many 
people. There are, in 
fact, more people in 
India than in the whole 
of North and South 
America. In some 
parts there are as many 
as five hundred persons 
to the square mile. 

The Indian Empire 
includes not only the entire peninsula of 
India, but the desert country of Baluchistan 
on the west, and fertile Burma Divisions of 
on the east. The two little the empire 
countries of Nepal and Bhutan , among the 
Himalaya Mountains on the north, are to 
some extent under the protection of the 
Indian Empire. 

Most of the Indian peninsula is a plateau, 
one thousand to two thousand feet high. 
But on the northern border of the empire 






ASIA 


397 




Fig. 489. — The great statue of Buddha. 


are lofty mountains, the highest being the 
Himalayas. In these mountains are many 
Surface peaks that rise over four miles 

features above sea level, and even the 

mountain passes are higher 
than Mont Blanc in the Alps. 

Between these lofty moun¬ 
tains and the Indian plateau 
is a broad lowland through 
which three great rivers flow, 

— the Ganges, the Indus, and 
the Brahmaputra. Trace 
each of these rivers. 

The coast of India is very 
regular, and there are, there¬ 
fore, few good harbors. 

Having a tropical climate, 

India is a very hot country; 

and in some 
Climate parts the climate 

is also very damp. This is 
true, for instance, in the south¬ 
ern part, and also in the north, 
on the slopes of the Himalaya 
Mountains. Here, just west 
of Burma, is the region which 


lias the heaviest rainfall in the world. Much 
of the empire, however, suffers for want of 
rain. In northwestern India and in Balu¬ 
chistan, for instance, there are extensive 
deserts; and much of the interior of the 
peninsula is arid. Thus, in many parts of 
India irrigation is necessary. 

The natives of India are classed as a 
branch of the white race, though most of 
them are much darker than The p e0 pie 
Europeans. Before the Brit- and 
ish took control of India the government 
peninsula was divided into many states ruled 
by native princes. Most of the states, too, 
have languages of their own. 

The native states still exist, and the 
native princes still hold their places; but 
they are all under the general control of the 
British. The present form of government 
was established in 1858, and India was 
declared a part of the British Empire in 
1876. Since that time the King of England 
has also been called the Emperor of India. 
An officer, called the viceroy , is sent to India 
from England to take general charge; but 
the natives have a share in their own gov- 


Fig. 490. — Natives preparing rattan in the tropical part of southern India. 











398 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 



Fig. 491. — Natives picking tea in a tea plantation in India. 


eminent, and many of the government 
officers are native Hindus. 

There are a number of religions in India, 
including the Christian, the Mohammedan, 
and the Buddhist; but the re¬ 
ligion of about Ihree fourths 
of the people is Brahmanism. One of the 
teachings of their religion is the belief in 
caste , — that is, that a person born in one 
station in life must stay there and cannot 
hope to rise into a higher station. That is 
very different from our belief that all men 
are born free and equal. 

The people of India have many religious supersti¬ 
tions. For example, the Ganges is considered a 
sacred river, and bathing in its waters is supposed 
to wash away disease. Since the waters are also 


used for drinking, this custom is no doubt re¬ 
sponsible for much spread of disease. The devout 
Hindu makes at least one pilgrimage to the holy 
river as a means of gaining divine favor and 
forgiveness. 

India, together with the peninsula and 
islands east of it, is the part of the world 
that Columbus was seeking when he dis¬ 
covered America. He undertook this 
voyage in order to find a short and easy 
route for bringing to Europe Why these 
the silks, dyewoods, spices, possessions 
perfumes, ivory, and precious are valuable 
stones that had long been reaching Europe 
from the Indies. These same valuable prod¬ 
ucts are still brought from this region ; but 
other products, as well, now come from here. 







AN/A 


399 




Fig. 492. — Native buffalo used for drawing wagons in India. 


There tire extensive forests on the moun¬ 
tain slopes, from which much lumber is 
obtained. One valuable tree is the teak, 
whose strong, durable wood is useful in 
building ships. In the hotter portions are 
1 Because of plants valuable for medicines; 
valuable forest also spices, such as pepper and 
products cinnamon. The bamboo is 

used in hundreds of ways in making imple¬ 
ments and in building houses; and the 
palms supply juices for drink, cocoanuts 
(Fig. 494) for food and for oil, and liber 
for ropes and mats. 


Eastern and southern India, where the winds blow 
from the ocean, have abundant rain. Because of the 
dampness and the tropical heat, there- are extensive 
forests here, forming a dense tan¬ 
gle, oi • jungle. In this jungle the tiger 
lives; also the elephant, and other 
large and fierce animals (Fig. 4G2). 

There are great numbers of poison¬ 
ous serpents, too, and thousands of 
people die every year from their 
bites. The English government 
has done much to make life safer 
and more agreeable in this section. 


vast number of inhabitants 
are fed, there is little left for 
export. 

Wheat, on the other hand, 
is raised for export, and India 
is an important granary for 
Great Britain. Much cotton 
also is produced, and a part 
of this likewise goes to Great 
Britain. Other agricultural 
products are sugar cane, to¬ 
bacco, opium, indigo, of value 
as a dye, and jute, which sup¬ 
plies a coarse, strong fiber. 
Much tea is raised on the hills of the very 
rainy region at the base of the Himalayas, 
south of Bhutan (Fig. 491). 

Tea requires a hot climate, plenty of rain, and 
slope enough to prevent the water from standing 
around the roots of the plant. The tea plant, which 
is from two to four feet high, has bright green 
leaves similar to those of a rosebush. The leaves 
are picked several times a year, in many cases by 
boys and girls. After being picked, the leaves 
are dried in order to remove all moisture before 
packing. 

India is not a great mining country, yet there 
are some valuable mineral deposits. Among these 
are salt, petroleum, iron, and coal. 3. Because of 
The latter is of special value because mineral products 
of its usefulness in manufacturing. Naturally coal 
is not much needed as a fuel in the homes. Why? 


From the very earliest 
times the people of India kave 

2. Because Of been engaged in 

agricultural farming, and at 

products present fully 

three fifths of them follow 

that occupation. Millet and 
rice are the staple foods of 
the natives; but after the 


Fig. 493. — Temples on the hanks of the Ganges at Benares. 













400 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , T2VZ> /S'LTJVZ) GROUPS 



The native inhabitants of India, like the 
Chinese, have long been highly civilized 
Benefits of and have long been noted for 
English rule their beautiful hand work, in 
wood, metal, and cloth. They have many 
line buildings that are centuries old. Even 
before the time of the Roman Empire, and 
of the Republic of Athens, the people of 
India were highly civilized. But, like the 
Chinese, for a long time they did not culti¬ 
vate the arts and sciences as Europe has 
done. In many ways, therefore, it has been 
to their advantage to come 
under the control of the 
British. 

For instance, the British 
have caused many excellent 
roads and railways to be 
built in India. ■ They have 
also established a number of 
manufacturing industries, es¬ 
pecially cotton. Another im¬ 
portant work has been the 
improvement of the system 
of irrigation; for much of 
western and central India is 
so arid that irrigation is 
necessary. Before the British 
took possession, famines and 
plagues were common. But 
the people are better fed now, 
and with the building of roads 
and railways, foods can be 
carried to places where the crops are an 
entire failure. 

In spite of these benefits, one wonders 
how so large a country, with so vast a 
Reasons why population, can be kept under 
the British can control by the English. India 
control India j s about twenty times as large 
as Great Britain, and has about eight times 
as many inhabitants. 

Many of the people of India are, in 
truth, dissatisfied with the English rule, 
and wish for independence; but they have 
not been able to obtain it, for India is very 
weak. The main cause for its weakness is 
the caste system, already mentioned. Men 


belonging to one caste will have almost 
nothing to do with those of a lower caste; 
they will not even eat at the same table 
with them. There are also different races, 
with varying customs, among the Indian 
people. These differences among them 
have made it impossible for the natives to 
expel the English, as they certainly could 
if they were united. 

So many Hindus are engaged in farming 
that only about five per cent of the popu¬ 
lation dwell in large towns. Yet, there 


Fig. 494. — An elephant drawing a load of cocoanuts in Ceylon. 


are eighty-three cities, each with a popula¬ 
tion of more than fifty thou- Large cities 
sand, while one, Calcutta, has 1. Their 
more than a million inhabit- number 
ants, and two others, Bombay and Madras, 
more than half a million each. 

Calcutta, a seaport on the Ganges delta, 
is the natural outlet of the fertile Ganges 
Valley. Since the city is situ- 2 cities on 
ated near coal fields, there is the Ganges 
some manufacturing ; but Cal- Rlver 
cutta is chiefly important as a commercial 
center. In 1912 the seat of government 
was removed from Bombay to Delhi, which 
is now the capital. 









ASIA 


401 


Farther up the Ganges are two smaller cities, 
Lucknow and Benares. The latter, the “ holy 
city of the Hindus,” is on that part of the Ganges 
which is thought to be most holy. At this point 
temples (Fig. 493) line the banks of the river for 
miles, and a steady stream of pilgrims pours into and 
out of the city. 

The Indus has no such large cities as those on 
the Ganges, partly because the country is desert, and 
partly because the river is too shallow for navi¬ 
gation. 

Bombay, next in size to Calcutta, and 
the nearest port to England, is a great 

3. Bombay business center. It is, more- 

and Madras over, the only Indian city with 

a good natural harbor. Madras, the third 
largest city, is situated at a point where 
there is only an open coast protected by a 
breakwater. 

Rangoon, the seaport of Burma, is important 

4. Rangoon for its export of rice; but Man- 
and Mandalay dalay, farther up the Irawadi 
River, is the largest city. 


Ceylon, with its fertile soil, abundant rainfall, 
and warm climate, is like a beautiful tropical 
garden. It was believed by the 
Ceylon Arabs to be the Garden of Eden. 

Among the products are cocoanuts, rice, fruit, coffee, 
and tea. The island is the third most important 
tea-producing section in the world. Other products 
are sapphires, rubies, pearls, and mother of pearl. 


1. Give some idea of the area and population of 


General facts 
about Asia 
1. Questions 


Asia. 


Why might we expect 
that Asia would be well known? 
3. How has the character of the 
people prevented us from knowing 
more about them ? 


1. Have you ever seen any Asiatic people? From 
what countries did they come? 2. By what water 
routes could you go from New York 

2. Suggestions Xientsin ? Would it be nearer to 

go by rail as far as San Francisco or Seattle? 

1. Why is this region of special interest to 
us? 2. Describe .its surface and 
Southwestern c p mate< 3 . Tell about the surface 

Asia and climate of the Holy Land. 

1. Questions 4 What important events happened 
there? 5. Describe Mesopotamia. What can you 
tell of its history? 0. Give the chief facts about 
the new countries of this region. 

1. What stories in the Bible have you read, that 
tell about places mentioned in this geography t 
2. Point out on the map (Fig. 437) 

2. Suggestions gome of tlie pi aces often mentioned 


in the New Testament, and describe some of the 
events that occurred there. 3. What is the mean¬ 
ing of b.c. and a.d. after a date (for example, 800 n.c. 
or 1920 a.d.) ? 

1. Describe the surface features and climate 
of Persia. 2. State facts about At- Persia and 
ghanistan. Afghanistan 

1. Find out how pearls are ob- L Questions 
tained. 2. What is mother of pearl ? 2 . Suggestions 

1. State some facts about the best- 
settled part of Siberia. 2. Tell about Siberia 
the use of Siberia as a prison. 1 ■ Questions 

1. Of what advantage is the Siberian railway 
to Russia? 2. IIow does that railway compare in 
length with those crossing the United _ „ 

States? " 1 2 ' Su|!S!e8,,0ns 


1. Tell about the former progress of the Chinese. 
2. Describe the Great Wall. 3. What has made 
the Chinese so backward? 4. What Republic 
kinds of climate are there ? 5. What of China 
are the chief agricultural products? 1- Questions 
6 . IIow is farming carried on? 7. Tell what you 
can about means of transportation. 8 . Describe the 
recent advances of the Chinese. 


1. IIow might railways in China help greatly to 
prevent the awful famines that they Su£eestions 
sometimes have there? 2. Why ** bu SS estlons 
should the Great Wall have less value now than 
formerly? 3. What reasons can you see for or 
against the free admission of Chinese to the United 
States ? 


1. Compare Japan with China in area and popu¬ 
lation. 2. Compare Japan with the j apan 
British Isles. 3. What advances l Questions 
have been made by Japan since 1853 ? 

4. Give several reasons for such advances. 5. What 
territories did it gain by the World War? 


1. Describe the surface features 
of this region. 2. Name the princi¬ 
pal divisions. 


Indo-China 
and the Malay 
Peninsula 
1. Questions 


1. State some facts about the area and population 
of this region. 2. Name the chief divisions of the 
Indian Empire. 3. M hat can you -phe Indian 
say about the people and govern- Empire 
ment? 4. Mention some ways in .. 

which this region is valuable to the ‘ ^ 

British. 5. Mention some benefits that the native 

inhabitants have received from British rule. 8 . (live 

a special reason why the British are able to control 


India. 

1. IIow far was Columbus from India when he 
discovered America ? 2. What route 
would he have taken if he had con- 


2. Suggestions 








402 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 


tinued his voyage to India? 3. Read Kipling’s 
“Jungle Book.” 

1. How do North America and Asia differ in 
form ? In regularity of coast line ? In direction of 
mountain ranges? In extent of the 
deserts ? 2. Does the Canadian 

Pacific Railway lie north or south 
of the Siberian railway? Which 
road is the longer? 3. Is San Francisco north or 


south of Peking? 4. How do the great rivers of 
China compare in length with the Mississippi ? 
5. How do the interior lakes'and seas of Asia com¬ 
pare in value for commerce with our Great Lakes? 
Why? 6. In what portions of North America and 
of Asia is rice cultivated? 7. Answer the same 
question for cotton. 8. What important crops in 
Asia are not extensively raised in the United States? 
9. What is the chief kind of government in each of 
the two continents? 


Comparisons 
with North 
America 







Fig. 495. — Relief map of Africa. 








AFRICA 


403 



II. Africa 

1. Compare Africa with the other continents in 
size (Fig. 2). 2. Sketch the outline of Africa, 

Map Study an d l° cat,e the principal rivers and 
lakes. 3. What peculiar fact do 
you notice about the location of the mountains? 
4. What zones cross Africa? 5. What kind of 
climate would you expect to find (a) in the extreme 
north; ( b) in the extreme south ; (r) at the equator; 
(of)-near the tropics? 6. Find the desert country 
north and south of the equator (Fig. 498). 7. In 

what sections are most railways found? What rea¬ 
sons can you suggest for their location? 8. Where 
are the large cities ? Compare their number with 
those in other continents. 


i. General Facts 

Africa, the second continent in size, re¬ 
sembles South America in outline. Its 
Surface form is roughly 

features that of a tri- 

1. Shape of angle, broad at 
the continent the n0 rtll and 

tapering toward the south. 

The coast line is very regular, 
in this respect being quite 
different from the coast of 
Europe, Asia, and North 
America, but resembling that 
of South America and Aus¬ 
tralia. What effect must such 
a regular coast have on the 
number of harbors ? What 
gulfs, seas, and large islands 
are found on the map of 
Africa ? 

Africa differs from all other 
continents in its mountain 

2 . Themoun- systems. The 

tains and continent is 

plateaus mainly a plateau; but near the 

coast the plateau edges are broken, and the 
rocks uplifted, so that there is an almost 
complete mountain rim (Fig. 496). Trace 
the mountain rim (Fig. 498) ; from what 
part of the coast is it absent ? In northern 
Africa some of the peaks of the Atlas 


sand feet; but the loftiest mountains are 
in the east central part. Among the latter 
is the volcanic cone of Kilimanjaro. Find 
this peak and trace the mountains from 
there northward. Notice the elevated land 
in Abyssinia. 

Owing to the mountain rim, the rivers of 
Africa are peculiar. For instance, the 
Niger, after rising among the 3 . The drain- 
highlands near the west coast, age 
sweeps around in a great curve before enter¬ 
ing the Atlantic. The Zambezi, in the 
south, also rises near the west coast, but 
flows eastward across the continent to the 
Indian Ocean. Trace the courses of the 
Nile and the Congo, the two largest rivers. 

In descending from the interior plateau 
each of these streams is interrupted by 
rapids and falls. Find the Victoria Falls 


ranges rise to a height of fourteen thou- 


Fig. 49t>.— The mountainous rim of the African plateau at Cape Town. 

of the Zambezi (Fig. 498); the cataracts of 
the Nile; also Leopoldville on the Congo, 
below which are some falls. How must 
these great rivers compare, therefore, with 
the Mississippi or Amazon as routes for 
commerce ? How must these falls affect 
the development of Africa? 

In one part of Africa there are several 









o 

rti 


6 

M 

fe 



N3W3A 





































































































































































406 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


large lakes. Name the three largest. Into 
what rivers do they empty? How do they 

compare in size with our Great 
The lakes j ja ]- es (Appendix, p. 458)? 

Why are they not as useful for navigation 
and commerce ? 

The equator crosses so near the middle 
of Africa that only the northern and soutli- 
Climate era extremities are in the tem- 

l. its general perate zones. Therefore the 
character climate of most of the conti¬ 

nent, like that of South America, is tropical. 



Fig. 499.— To show the influence of climate on vegetation. 
In the savanna area there are numerous forest-covered 
sections, especially near the rivers. 


Since the African plateau rises to nearly 
the same elevation in all parts, the belts of 
climate extend nearly east and west. Is 
this true of South America ? 

For some distance both to the north and 
south of the equator, there is such a hot, 
2. The forest rainy climate that, as in the 
Amazon Valley, the land is 
covered with a dense tropical forest. 
This is especially true near the coast at 
the base of the plateau, where the narrow 
strip of coastal plain is hot, reeking with 
moisture, and is therefore the seat of deadly 
malaria. 

The interior, owing to its greater eleva¬ 


tion, is cooler and more healthful; but even 
there tropical heat and rain prevail near the 
equator. It is this heavy rainfall that 
supplies the Congo and Nile with their 
immense volumes of water. 

Both north and south of the rainy region 
is the savanna belt (Fig. 499), where the 

rainfall varies with the season. „ 

, ~ 0 . N n 3. The savan- 

’’ ny vP* — ‘ >- 0 • ’’ J16I6 are nas north and 

the corresponding savannas in south of this 
South America (p. 262) ? belt 

Why are the savanna belts covered with 
grass instead of forests (p. 249) ? 

The small number of streams on the map 
(Fig. 498) shows how dry the climate must be in the 
savanna belts. So, also, does the condition of 
Lake Chad; for, although a good-sized stream enters 
this lake, no water flows out. The size of this lake 
is not always the same, for during the dry season 
the lake shrinks until it is smaller than Lake Erie, 
but with the coming of the wet season it rises until 
it becomes several times as large. 


desert regions 

(1) Their loca- 


As the tropical forest grades into the sa¬ 
vanna, so the savanna merges into the true 
desert (p. 409), where the in- 4 The tw0 
fluence of the drying trade 
winds is felt at all times of 
the j^ear. In only a few parts tl0n 
of northern and southern Africa is there a 
fair amount of rain; that is on the moun¬ 
tain slopes near the Mediterranean (Fig. 
298) and on the southeastern slopes of 
South Africa, where the winds blow from 
the sea. 

The northern desert is much larger than 

O 

that south of the equator. This is due 
partly to the fact that the 
continent is so broad in the 
north, and partly to the large is much the 
land areas which lie to the lar(jeT 
north and east. Since the north and east 
are the directions from which the winds of 
northern Africa must come, they reach this 
region with little vapor. Thus the Sahara 
forms a part of the most extensive desert 
belt in the world. 


(2) Why the 
northern desert 


In the Sahara there are cloudless skies, and there 
is very little rain; but here and there, on the moun- 






BABOON 


CHIMPANZEE 


LEOPARD 


OSTRICH 


CROCODILE 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


GIRAFFE 


ELEPHANT 

The M.N Co., Buffalo. 


LION 


Fig. 500. — Some of the wild animals of Africa. 


t#*-F 






408 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 



The native 
plant and ani 
mal life 

1. In the 
savannas and 
the forest belt 


tain slopes, there is moderate rainfall. It is this 
which supplies the widely scattered springs, and the 
short mountain streams that nourish 
(3) The kind of the vegetation of the oases. In the 
climate in the c ] ear d eser t air, the nights are 

cool, even in summer. Although 
the midday temperature may rise as high as 100°, 
or even 115°, in the shade, blankets are needed for 
cover at night. 

The open country between the desert and the 
tropical forest abounds in large animals (Fig. 500). 

Among these, on the savannas, and 
on the edge of the forest, are the 
antelope, giraffe, buffalo, zebra, ele¬ 
phant, lion, leopard, and rhinoceros, 
while the crocodile and the huge hip¬ 
popotamus live in the rivers. The 
dense forest itself is shunned by many 
of the larger animals, though teeming with insect 

life, birds, reptiles, 
and tree-dwelling 
mammals. Among 
the latter are the 
baboon, the gorilla, 
and the chim¬ 
panzee (Fig. 500). 

Portions of the 
desert, especially 
where 
covered 
with 
dunes 
of moving sand, 
have almost no 
plant life. Ani¬ 
mals are also few 
in number, among 
them being the 
ostrich (Fig. 500) 
and the camel. 
The oases, on the 
other hand, sup¬ 
port a number of plants. Of these the date palm 
is most notable, for it is an important source of food 
for the nomads of the desert. 


2. In the 

desert 

regions 


Fig. 50L — An African negro woman 
planting. 


Central and southern Africa is the home 
of the negroes, who are divided into many 
Native inhab- tribes with different customs, 
itants of For centuries the negroes were 
Africa captured by the whites and 

1 Negroes sold into s l ave ry; but the day 
of the slave trade is now almost past. 

In spite of the frequent slave-hunting 
raids, and the great destruction of life in 
the fierce tribal wars, there are many negroes 


left. Some are fierce and warlike; others 
peaceful. Those who dwell in the forest 
live by hunting; those upon the savannas, 
by simple forms of agriculture (Fig. 501) 
and by herding. With a fertile soil, and 
in a warm climate, they are able to sup¬ 
port themselves with little work, especially 
alonar the rivers and on the savannas. 

The forest and much of the savanna have 
been occupied by the negro, even down to 
the present day; but the arid g Whites 
sections of northern Africa 
have been held by the white race since very 
early times. They are in part herders, 
livinof the nomadic life common to such 
lands. These people are intelligent and 
full of energy, though fierce and warlike. 
On the oases are a more peaceful class, liv¬ 
ing the life of farmers. Near the border 
line between the blacks and whites there 



WILLIAMS EN6. CO., N.Y. 


Fig. o02. 

has been such a mixture of blood that the 
population consists largely of half-breeds. 
^ Although Africa is so near Exploration 
Europe, it has been less ex- and settlement 
plored and settled by Euro- p why so little 
peans than any other continent, of either 












AFRICA 


409 


There are several reasons for this, the most 
important being the fact that so much of 
Africa has a tropical climate. The desert 
repels people, and the hot, damp climate of 
the coastal strip, upon which colonies would 
naturally be first started, was found to be 
very unhealthful (p. 410). Disease is apt 
to seize white men even while they are 
crossing the coastal strip. Besides, progress 
into the interior was checked by hostile 
hordes of blacks, and by the absence of 
navigable rivers. Moreover, men who were 
willing to leave Europe were more attracted 
toward Australia and America. Why ? 

Even before the famous voyage of Colum¬ 
bus, the Portuguese — the most progressive 

2. Exploration sailors of that day — were try- 

and settlements ing to reach the East Indies 
by the Portu- by sailing around the southern 
guese end of Africa. After various 

voyages, the Cape of Good Hope was finally 
passed, and in 1498 the way to the Indies 
by water was opened. The Portuguese 
made settlements on the east and west 
coasts of Africa, and they still have large 
colonies there (Fig. 497). 

By far the most successful colony in the 
newly discovered parts of Africa was that 

3 . By the started by the Dutch at Cape 

Dutch Colony, a little later than their 

settlement of New York. As was the case 
in New York, the British seized the Dutch 
territory; but by migrating northward, the 
Dutch were able to remain independent for 
a long time. Finally, in 1900, that territory 
also was seized by the British, who still 
hold it. 

During the nineteenth century, Living¬ 
stone, Stanley, and other explorers entered 

4. By other the “dark continent”; and 

people since these expeditions there 

has been great progress in exploring Africa. 
Many European nations have taken part in 
the exploration, and as a result have laid 
claim to the territory. Among these the 
British have been by far the most active. 
What other nations have possessions in 
Africa (Fig. 497)? 


2. Northern Africa 

Much of northern Africa is such a desert 
that its inhabitants are few and scattered. 
It is, however, under the con- Divisions of 
trol of several nations. The this region, 
greater part of the Sahara is and their gov- 
claimed by the French, though ernment 
the Spanish hold a small section on the west¬ 
ern coast, and the British control both the 
Libyan desert and the Egyptian Sudan in 
the east, besides exercising general super¬ 
vision over Egypt. 

Along the Mediterranean coast are sev¬ 
eral well-settled sections, the best known 
being Egypt. The countries west of 
Egypt—Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria, and Mo¬ 
rocco— are often called the Barbary States 
(the home of the Berbers). Tripoli was 
formerly a part of the Turkish Empire, but 
in 1912 passed under the control of Italy; 
Algeria and Tunis belong to France. Mo¬ 
rocco is independent. It is ruled by an 
absolute monarch, called the Sultan. 

From the Atlantic to the Red Sea, and 
from near the Mediterranean coast to the 
grass lands of the Sudan, there The Sahara 
is almost unbroken desert— 1 - its extent 
the famous Sahara. Its area is estimated 
to be from three to four million square 
miles, or about equal to that of the entire 
United States. 

It is a plateau of uneven surface, with 
low mountain ranges here and there, and 
bordered on the north by the 2 . its surface 
Atlas Mountains. The wind- features 
swept highlands are bare and stony, while 
in the lowlands there are extensive areas of 
sand dunes. Much of the soil is fertile, 
and with rainfall would yield abundant 
crops. But nature has forbidden rain, and 
its surface is therefore barren in the ex¬ 
treme. Only on the oases, of which there 
are some four hundred in the Sahara, is 
there water for irrigation and for drink¬ 
ing (Fig. 503). 

Caravans cross this desert in order to 
carry the products of central Africa to the 



410 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


northern coast. These include ivory, skins, 
3. Caravans and ostrich feathers, obtained 

(1) Their object by bartering 1 with the negroes. 

One of the important routes is from Tafilet in 
Morocco, southward to Timbuktu, and the trip re¬ 
quires fully three months. Estimate 

(2) How they the distance. There may be from a 

thousand to htteen hundred camels m 
a single caravan, and a full year may be needed to 
equip it. Each camel is carefully selected by the chief 


but the better grades are able to go six or seven 

days without water, and with almost no food. 

There are dangers in the journey aside from that 

of thirst. Sometimes sand storms arise; and 

although such a storm may not last „ 7 

° ., , . J i , * (3) The dangers 

many hours, it may destroy a whole 

caravan. The wind then blows fiercely, and sand 

fills the air, drifting about in such quantities that 

animals and men alike are smothered in the drifts. 

Small caravans are in danger of being attacked by 

wandering tribes ; and near the southern edge of the 



Fig. 503. — Algerian natives drawing water from a well on the edge of an oasis in the Sahara desert. 


of the caravan, and extra camels are taken to replace 
those that give out on the journey. Usually about a 
third of the animals perish in the round trip ; and be¬ 
fore the return journey is begun, it is necessary for 
those that have survived to have a rest of several 
weeks. 

There is one driver for every dozen camels. 
Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the 
camels’ backs, each animal bearing about three 
hundred pounds. A day’s march lasts sixteen hours, 
the camels traveling some thirty abreast, at the rate 
of about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels can¬ 
not travel more than three days without drinking; 


desert the danger from attack by the lion is added. 
It requires courage and great powers of endurance 
to engage in the caravan trade. 

Egypt and the Libyan desert are a con¬ 
tinuation of the Sahara, and have all the 
features of the desert just de- Egypt and 
scribed. Even at Cairo the neighboring 
average yearly rainfall is but British terri- 
an inch and a half. The cli- tory 
mate of northern Egypt, both 1 ‘ Its chmate 
in summer and winter, closely resembles 








AFRICA 


411 



2. The Nile 
River 

(1) Where its 
waters come 
from 


that of the desert portion 
of western Arizona and 
southeastern California. 

The Egyptian Sudan 
and the country south of 
it, on the 
other hand, 
have a tropi¬ 
cal climate, 
arid in the 
north, but warm and 
humid in the south, 
where the influence of 
the tropical rains is felt. 

The head waters of the 

Nile, near the equator, 

are fed by such heavy rains that the river is 

able to flow across the desert in spite of the 

fact that no tributaries enter the lower half 

of its course. How great a distance is that ? 

After leaving the rainy region of the 


Fig. 504. — One of the Pyramids. 

south, the Nile crosses the desert through 
a valley — in places a thousand feet deep 
— which it has cut in the 
plateau. In this part of its 
course there are several cataracts (Fig. 


(2) Its character 



Fig. 505. —The lower Nile. The shaded area between the 
two deserts is farming land, which is reached by water 
from the river. The numerous crossed lines are rail¬ 
ways. Find the Pyramids. Why is the location at the 
head of a fertile delta, and at the outlet of a narrow 
river valley bounded by desert, a favorable one for a 
large city? 


498 ). 

Below Cairo the river leaves its narrow valley, 
divides into several channels, and flows across a 
plain (Fig. 505). This plain is the delta, which the 
Nile has built in the Mediterranean Sea during the 
ages that the river has been bringing sediment irom 
its upper course. It is the Nile that suggested the 
term delta, now given to similar deposits at the 
mouths of rivers in various parts of the world. The 
word comes from the Greek letter delta (A), which 
has the form of a triangle. Notice that shape in 
Figure 505. 

When the rainy season swells the Nile 
tributaries among the Abyssinian Moun¬ 
tains, the river rises so high ( 3 ) its impor- 
that it overflows large tracts tance 
of the broad delta below Cairo. 1 he rise 
begins in June and reaches its height in 
October. By this overflow the land is irri¬ 
gated, and a thin layer of fine mud is spread 
over the fields. This serves to fertilize the 
soil so that, year after year, heavy crops may 
be raised without making the soil sterile. 

Without the Nile the whole of northern 
Egypt would be a sparsely inhabited des¬ 
ert ; but the precious river waters trans¬ 
form the section near the Mediterranean 
into a great oasis. This region is the 

















412 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


seat of an im¬ 
portant agricul¬ 
tural industry, 
and is densely 
settled. 

Because of 
these very fa¬ 
vorable condi¬ 
tions, the Nile 
delta has been 
occupied by 
3. Agri- an agri¬ 
culture cultural 
people from the 
very earliest 
times. It is 
still the seat of 
a great grain 
industry, pro¬ 
ducing wheat, 
corn, millet, 
and barley. 
Much rice and 
sugar cane are 
also raised, and 
much cotton, 
which is of 
especial value because of its long fiber. 
There are many vineyards, and orange, 
lemon, and fig groves; and both along the 
Nile and on the oases of the desert there are 
groves of date palms. Graz¬ 
ing is important in the Nile 
Valley and on the neighboring 
plateau. The animals raised 
include the buffalo and camel, 
in addition to sheep, goats, 
cattle, horses, and donkeys. 

The known history of Egypt 
reaches back several thousand 

4 History y ears before the 
VI'spZver. time of Christ. 
ity in ancient The fertile soil 
times and favorable 

climate encouraged agriculture 
then, as now; and the sur-: 
rounding desert and sea gave 
protection from frequent in¬ 


vasions. This led to the growth of a pros¬ 
perous nation, in which there arose a 
civilization in advance of that of the neigh¬ 
boring sections of Europe and Asia. In 
fact, at the time when Europe was inhabited 
by barbarians, Egypt had made long ad¬ 
vances in civilization. It was from Egypt 
that Europeans learned some of their early 
lessons. 

We read in the Bible of the Pharaohs who ruled 
over Egypt. Can you recall any of the Bible sto¬ 
ries which mention these rulers; for example, tlfe 
story of Joseph? During those times the Egyptians 
built the obelisks (Fig. 50G), the Sphinx (Fig. 507), 
and the marvelous pyramids (Fig. 504) which are 
really the tombs of kings. By a peculiar process 
they preserved 'the bodies of their dead, and these 
mummies may be seen in the museums in many of 
our large cities. Among the mummies tfiat have 
been found are the remains of some of the Pharaohs 
themselves. 

Egypt later became one of the highways 
of the world, when the people who dwelt 
along the eastern shores of (2) How it later 
the Mediterranean, and farther Sl #ered 
east in Asia, began to migrate westward. 
Against its people many destructive wars 
were waged, and as other nations advanced, 
the Egyptians steadily lost ground. The 
famous conqueror, Alexander the Great, 
overcame the Egyptians and founded the 
city of Alexandria; later the Romans 




Fig. 506. — An o.belisk in Egypt. 









AFRICA 


413 


made conquest of the territory, and since 
then it has been repeatedly invaded, for it 
has continued to be a highway of trade for 
three continents. Among the last con¬ 
querors of Egypt were the Mohammedan 
Turks, and for a long time Turkey had 
some control over the country. Egypt 
was governed so badly that 


of twenty-six feet and a width at the surface of 
from sixty-five to one hundred and twenty yards. 
Its length is much greater than that of the Panama 
Canal, but it was easier to dig, for the country is 
quite level, and about twenty-one miles of the canal 
is through a lake. Ten vessels, on an average, pass 
through the Suez Canal each day. Estimate the 
distance saved by this canal in going from London 
to Calcutta. 



{ partly l undZ me the Fren cli and British finally 
control of the took control of the finances 

theresuits of nation. 

When the French 
refused to aid in subduing a 
rebellion in Egypt, the British 
alone took a large share in the 
control of Egyptian affairs. 

Under British direction, the 
government of Egypt is a 
monarchy ; the ruler is called 
the Sultan. As a result of 
British leadership there has 
recently been much progress. 

Extensive irrigation works 
have been undertaken, by 
which tfie area suitable for 
raising cotton and sugar cane 
has been greatly increased. 

By means of reservoirs and canals it is 
further planned to reclaim thousands of 
square miles of the desert. Several railway 
lines have also been built, including a part 
of a proposed line from Cairo to Cape Town, 
as far as Khartum. Outside of the Nile 
Valley, however, travel still depends largely 
upon the use of camels (Fig. 507). 

Northeastern Egypt includes the Isthmus 
of Suez, which connects Africa with Asia. 
5. The Suez This narrow neck of land has 
Canal for centuries stood as a barrier 

to water travel from Europe to southeastern 
Asia, forcing European vessels to pass all 
the way around Africa in order to reach 
southern Asia. It is not to be wondered 
at, therefore, that a ship canal has been dug 
across this isthmus. 

The Suez Canal, begun in 1859, was finished in 
1869. It extends from Suez to Port Said (Fig. 
508), and is eighty-seven miles long, witli a depth 


At the head of the delta, just above the 
point where the Nile branches (Fig. 505), 


Fig. 508. —Ships passing through the Suez Canal. 


is Cairo, the capital and largest city of 
Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. It has a 
population of over half a mil- 6. Leading 
lion. This interesting place Cities 
is visited each year by a stream of tourists, 
some attracted by its reputation as a winter 
health resort, others by the strange life of 
the country and by the remarkable ruins of 
the ancient civilization (Figs. 504, 506, and 
507). 

Cairo itself contains the palace of the 
Sultan, several interesting mosques, and 
a museum in which there are many Egyp¬ 
tian relics and works of art. The natives 
also attract attention, for in the streets may 
be seen many people, with different lan¬ 
guages and peculiar customs (Fig. 509). 
The differences among the people are indi¬ 
cated by the following fact: There are 
three Sabbaths each week, Friday, the Sab¬ 
bath of the Mohammedans; Saturday, ob- 












414 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , ^iVZ) /*’L^A T D GROUPS 



served by the Jews, and Sunday, by the 
Christians. 

Alexandria, connected with Cairo by 
rail, is the seaport of Egypt and the 
second city in size. Nearly half the 
trade is with Great Britain. 

State the position of each of the four 
countries west of Egypt. While these 
countries border the 
Mediterranean, they 

1. Their sur- extend far south- 
face and climate war j into the des¬ 
ert (p. 409). What about the 
efovernraent of each ? 

O 


2. Their 
ucts 


prod- 


The Barbary 
States 


The Atlas Mountains skirt 
the Mediterranean coast from 
the Atlantic to Tunis, where 
they project into the Mediter¬ 
ranean, forming the most 
northerly point in Africa. 

These mountains cause vapor 
to be condensed when winds 
blow from the ocean or from 
the Mediterranean. For this 
reason many of the valleys 
among the mountains are well 
watered. 

Forests cover some of the mountain 
slopes, and one of the valuable trees is the 


Fig. 509. — An Arab woman in the 
streets of Cairo. 


cork oak. Large numbers of camels, sheep, 
goats, and cattle are raised 
among the mountains and 
upon the plateaus. 

Agriculture is carried on here and 
there, often by means of irrigation, 
with water supplied by the moun¬ 
tain snows and rains, as in south¬ 
ern California. Among the 
crops are dates, grains, figs, 
grapes, and olives. Wine 
from the grapes of Algeria 
is shipped in large quan¬ 
tities to PTance ; and 
much olive oil and the 
best dates in the 
world co m e 
from Tunis. 

The moun¬ 
tains contain 
many valuable 
mineral prod¬ 
ucts, including precious metals 
in Morocco and Algeria, and 
marble and alabaster in the lat¬ 
ter country. Little use is made 
of these minerals, however. 
The original occupants of this region, 
the Berbers , still dwell on the desert and 









Fig. 510. — Nomads encamped in the desert of Algeria, south of Biskra. 










AFRICA 


415 



among the mountains, where they were | or Mohammedan Bible. What does such a condi- 

3. Character driven long ago by 

of the inhabit- invading Arabs. 

ants Most of the natives 

are Mohammedans. 

Many of the inhabitants of Morocco 
are still barbarians, and some of the 
tribes among the mountains even 
refuse to recognize the rule of the 
Sultan. On the whole the people are 
cruel and treacherous, and if a vessel 
is wrecked upon their coast, it is sure 
to be plundered by them. Even within 
the last few years, Europeans have 
been seized and held for ransom. It 
is easy to see, therefore, why it has 
been necessary for Spain, with the con¬ 
sent of other Powers, to attempt to 
control these wild people. 

Conditions of life in Morocco are 
illustrated by the following: The 
writer once visited a school in Tangier 
consisting of a dozen boys from nine 
to ten years of age. The room where 
they studied received its only light 
from the open door, and it contained 
no seats, desks, or furniture of any 
kind. The children sat on the floor, 
in a semicircle around a long-bearded 
old man, who also sat on the floor; 
and the only object that each had 
before him was a page from the Koran, 



Fig. 512. — An Arab school in. northern Africa. 













416 


ASIA. AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 



lion of education suggest in regard to progress? If 
this is the case on the coast, almost within the 
shadow of Europe, what must be the condition 
farther inland? 

The capitals are the principal cities 
among the Barbary States. Fez, one of 
4. Principal the capitals of Morocco, is in 
cities the interior ; but the Sultan 

and his court do not reside there all the 
year. Name the other capital. Tangier, 
on the coast, is better known. Why should 


Fig. 513.— 

it be? In Algeria, the seaport Algiers is 
the capital and largest city. It is an in¬ 
teresting place, having both ancient and 
modern buildings side by side. Under 
the French it has become an important 
trading center. The same is true of 
Tunis, the capital of the country by that 
name. Locate the capital of Tripoli. 

3 . Southern Africa 

In some important respects northern and 
southern Africa are much alike, although 


they lie in different hemispheres. How 
do they resemble each other in climate 
(p. 406) and surface features Points of simi- 
(p. 403) ? There is a resem- larity to north- 
blance, too, in the fact that both ern Africa 
sections have long been settled by white 
men. What difference is there in the 
length of time that white men have oc¬ 
cupied the two regions? 

It is to the Dutch that we owe the first 
important development of South Africa. 

Settling at Control of 
Cape Town, the region 
and then 1. By the 
spreading Dutch 
over the neighboring 
region, they took posses¬ 
sion of the country occu¬ 
pied by the negroes, and 
introduced the industries 
of farming and ranching. 

When Cape Colony, 
now called Cape of Good 
Hope, came into posses¬ 
sion of the British (p. 
409), many of the Dutch 
remained; but others 
emigrated, or “trekked,” 
northward to find new 
homes in the interior, 
where they set up two 
republics, the Transvaal 
and the Orange Free 
State, in which they 
wished to continue the 
customs of their forefathers and follow the 
occupations of farming and herding. 

Doubtless the Boers, as these people are 
called, would have been left to themselves 
but for the discovery of rich 2 By the 
deposits of gold in their new English and 
territory. The mines were other P eo P les 
worked by British capital, and trouble arose 
between the mine owners and the Boers. 
War followed, as a result of which the 
Transvaal and the Orange Free State were 
declared British colonies in 1900. Even 
before this the British had gained control of 


A Zulu woman making a carpet. 








AFRICA 


417 


a large tract of land to the north of the 
Dutch country, in tropical Africa. 

When the World War broke out in Eu¬ 
rope in 1914, war quickly followed in South 
Africa between the British apd the German 
colonists. The British succeeded in defeat¬ 
ing the Germans and gained possession of 
Southwest Africa and East Africa. Locate 
these on the map. 

At present, therefore, the British control 
a broad strip of territory from the southern 


tip of Africa northward to the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. What are the names of the 
British colonies in South Africa (Fig. 497)? 
They are now united to form The Union of 
South Africa. 

There are many savage negroes in this 
region, particularly in the tropical section, 
and in Zululand in northern Natal (Fig. 
326). 

Along the eastern coast, and in some of 
the interior valleys, agriculture is an im- 

. ,, portant industry. Sugar cane. 

Agriculture f • , . 

bananas, pineapples, tea, col- 

fee, and rice are raised near the coast, 

where the climate is warm and damp. But 

wheat, tobaceo, vegetables, and grapes are 

grown in the cooler south and upon the 


uplands wherever the rainfall is sufficient, 
or where irrigation is possible. 

By far the greater part of South Africa is 
an arid plateau, and its elevation causes cold 
winters in spite of the latitude. Forests are 
lacking ; but grass springs into life after the 
summer rains (November and December), 
and the country becomes green and beauti¬ 
ful. Then follows a long drought, when 
vegetation withers ; but, as in the arid part 
of western United States, the grass dries 
on the ground and becomes 
hay upon which cattle and 
sheep thrive. 

Upon this plateau, there¬ 
fore, immense numbers of 
cattle, sheep, and goats are 
raised, and also many os¬ 
triches. In Cape of Good Hope 
alone there are about nineteen 
million sheep and goats, two 
million cattle, and three hun¬ 
dred and fifty thousand os¬ 
triches. From this it follows 
that the production of wool, 
hides, meat, and ostrich 
feathers is of great impor¬ 
tance. Of what value are 
these products to Great 
Britain ? 

The discovery of gold in 
South Africa has brought great changes, 

as it did in the arid section of ... 

Mining 

western United States. 1 he 
gold is found scattered through a large bed 
of rock in the Transvaal, near the city of 
Johannesburg, which on account of the 
valuable mines has become one of the larg¬ 
est cities of South Africa. This is now the 
most important gold-producing region in 
the world ; indeed, more gold is mined here 
than in the whole United States. 

Other valuable minerals, including cop¬ 
per, iron, and coal, also occur; but as yet 
they have been little developed. At Kim¬ 
berley, there are wonderful diamond 
mines, which now supply most of the dia¬ 
monds used in the world. 



Fig. 514 —Workmen picking out diamonds at Kimberley. 






















418 


ARIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


The diamonds occur as rounded crystals in a 
partly decayed volcanic rock, and are obtained by 
digging out the soft rock and carefully removing the 
crystals (Fig. 514). After this, the crystals must 
be cut into the proper shape and polished. There 
are various grades, some clear and beautiful, others 
impure and dull. So productive is this deposit of 
precious stones that it has already yielded three 
hundred million dollars’ worth of diamonds. 

The two chief rivers of South Africa are 
of little use as trade routes. The Orange 
The lack of River is not navigable, because 

conveniences of lack of water; moreover, 

for transporta- there are rapids at the edge of 
the plateau. The other large 
river, the Zambezi, is navigable by small 
boats for a distance of three hundred miles 



Fio. 515. — A steamboat on the Congo. 

from its mouth ; but the climate near the 
coast, especially on the delta, is warm, damp, 
and unhealthful. Rapids check further 
navigation, and at one point there is a cata¬ 
ract, the Victoria Falls, which rivals even 
Niagara in grandeur. This cataract has a 
width of over a mile, and a height of four 
hundred and fifty feet. It is therefore 
both wider and higher than Niagara; but 
the volume of water is less. 

Not only are the rivers unsuited to the 
needs of internal commerce, but the coast 
is unfavorable to foreign commerce. For 
long distances there are no good harbors, 
while the river mouths are choked with 
sand bars. 

A breakwater has made Table Bay a 


good port, and around its shores, beauti¬ 
fully situated at the base of Table Moun¬ 
tain (Fig. 496), is Cape Town, Principal 
the capital and largest city cities 
of Cape of Good Hope. It is connected 
with the interior by a railway, which forms 
the southern end of the proposed railway 
from Cape Town to Cairo. 

A second important harbor is that of 
Delagoa Bay, upon which is situated Lou- 
renco Marquez, the capital of Portuguese 
East Africa. Being connected by rail with 
the interior, this port has been much used for 
the shipment of Transvaal products. Dur¬ 
ban, the seaport of Natal, is a small city 
also connected with the Transvaal by rail. 

The two principal interior cities 
are Kimberley and Johan¬ 
nesburg. For what are they 
noted (p. 417) ? The Germans 
formerly controlled Southwest 
Africa, which for the most part 
is an arid plateau. Walfisch 
Bay is a good harbor. Lo¬ 
cate it. 

4 . Central Africa 

This vast area is in large 
part unknown. Much of it is 
tropical forest ; but on the 
northern and southern sides are open sa¬ 
vannas (p. 406). 

Owing to the heavy rainfall of the forest 
belt, the rivers are large. The Nile and 
Zambezi, already described, value of the 
and the Niger and Congo, rivers for 
all receive water from the transportation 
equatorial rains. The Niger is navigable 
in sections*, but there are rapids in some 
parts, and in its northern portion the river 
dwindles in size because of the dry climate 
there. Its large tributary, the Benue, is 
navigable. 

It is the immense Congo, which empties 
into the sea a few degrees south of the 
equator, that offers the best natural high¬ 
way to central Africa. Unfortunately 








AFRICA 


419 


there is a series of falls in the river a 
short distance from the coast ; but above 
Stanley Pool there are thousands of miles 
of navigable waters in the main river (Fig. 
515) and its tributaries. 

It was Stanley who first explored the Congo, in 
1876; and since that time this part of Africa has 
been rapidly developing. Formerly it was neces¬ 
sary to carry goods around the rapids, each native 
porter carrying about sixty pounds on his back. 
Only in this way was Stanley able to take his boats 


tropical forests. The full-grown men are only three 
or four feet in height. They live by hunting, by 
gathering the vegetable products of the forest, and 
by theft from the neighboring agricultural tribes. 
Their villages are usually built in the forest where 
two paths cross. In that hot climate they find little 
need for clothing. 

With a small spear, a, short bow with poisoned 
arrows, and a knife, they hunt with wonderful skill; 
and by means of pitfalls they capture even the ele¬ 
phant. They know all the forest paths, and neither 
bird nor beast can escape them. According to Stan¬ 
ley, they offer one of the greatest obstacles to explora- 



Fig. 516. — A negro village in Africa. 


to the navigable portion farther upstream. Now, 
however, a railway, two hundred and fifty miles in 
length, connects the lower Congo with Leopoldville, 
on Stanley Pool, above the falls. Thence, at all sea¬ 
sons of the year, steamers may go a thousand miles 
up the river, and also into many of the tributaries. 

Very few Europeans have settled in cen¬ 
tral Africa and the native blacks live al¬ 
most as their ancestors did. 
Th u e - tlv f Most of the inhabitants live 
in huts made ot brush, or 
some similar material, and clustered in 
villages (Fig. 516). They have a kind 
of tribal government, each tribe having a 
leader whose power is absolute, and under 
whom are minor chiefs. Some of the tribes 
are cannibals. 

Among the blacks none are more remarkable than 
the pygmies , whom Stanley discovered in the dense 


tion ; for they are stealthy, they attack a party with 
great courage, and can easily escape pursuit in the 
trackless forests. 

European nations have been active in 
claiming the greater part of central Africa ; 
but they have little real control Divisions 
over the native inhabitants. of this region 
The following are some of the more impor¬ 
tant parts of central Africa. 

The Sudan includes the vast area that 
lies between the Sahara and the tropical 
forest. What can you tell 
about its climate (p. 406) ? ' The Sudan 

More than half of the Sudan is claimed 
by the French, and most of the remainder, 
including Nigeria and the Egyptian Sudan , 
is held by the British. The inhabitants in 
the north are nomadic, while those in the 







420 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


south are agricultural, though they raise 
little more than is needed for their own 
use. There is some gold in the west ; but 
the principal products are ivory, ostrich 
feathers, ebony, rubber, and gums. 

The Sudan is difficult to reach, being bordered by 
the Sahara on the north, the tropical forest on the 
south, and the plateau edge elsewhere. Water routes 
are of little service, since some of the drainage is into 
the interior basins, like Lake Chad, and some into 



Fig. 517. — Negroes and a native hut in Central Africa. 


the Nile and Niger. The difficulty of reaching Tim¬ 
buktu, for example, is shown by the fact that there 
is still an important caravan route from that place 
across the wide Sahara to the Mediterranean (p. 410). 

A railway to connect Timbuktu with the coast is 
now partly built. What effect must this have on the 
caravan route, if completed? Why? A railway has 
also been proposed across the Sahara from north 
to south; and already there is a railway into that 
part of the Sudan which the Nile crosses. With 
railways much of the open savanna country of the 
Sudan will doubtless be found attractive to white 
settlers. 

East of the Sudan is Abyssinia, which is, 
for the most part, a rocky plateau, crossed 
2. Abyssinia by mountains, and difficult of 
and surrounding access. The condition of this 
territory country is well shown by the 

fact that the position of the capital is 
changed when the supply of firewood is 
exhausted. It is evident, therefore, that 


there are no government buildings. The 
inhabitants, who are mainly of the white 
race, belong to different tribes which are 
often hostile to one another. Many of the 
people still hold to Christianity, in spite of 
the invasion by Mohammedans nearly four 
centuries ago. The exports of Abyssinia 
include coffee, hides, skins, ivory, and gold. 

Abyssinia is surrounded by colonies of 
other nations. Italy holds Eritrea and 
Italian Somaliland. What col¬ 
onies on the west and south? 

The map shows several small 
countries on the west coast of 
Africa. The divi- 3 Small coun _ 
sions colored pink tries on the west 
belong to the coast 
British. Togoland and Kame- 
run, colonies taken from Ger¬ 
many during the World War, 
are under British and French 
protection. Find a section be¬ 
longing to Spain. What parts 
are controlled by France? 

One of these small countries 
is Liberia , which is of special 
interest to Americans. It is a 
negro republic, established in 
1822 by Americans as a home 
for freed slaves ; and its capital, Mon¬ 
rovia, is named after President Monroe. 
No white man is allowed to become a 
citizen. The republic was modeled after 
Sierra Leone , next to it on the west, which 
the British founded as a home for liberated 
slaves. 

Belgian Congo, crossed by the equator and 
drained by the Congo and its tributaries, 
was founded by Leopold, king Belgian Congo 
of Belgium, who supported and neighbor- 
Stanley in his explorations of in 2 territory 
this region. It is now under the control 
of Belgium. It is in large part a forest- 
covered plateau, but there are extensive 
areas of grass land. Hordes of savages, 
including the pygmies, inhabit the forests 
and savannas; the buffalo, elephant, and 
leopard live on the plains; and the roar of 






AFRICA 


421 


the lion is frequently heard. Large quan¬ 
tities of rubber, ivory, palm oil, gum, and 
cocoa, as well as tropical woods, are obtained 
from this region. Some g(old i3 also ex¬ 
ported. 


East of the Belgian Congo are British territories. 
What are their names ? What can you tell about 
their climate (p. 406) ? What products would you 
expect ? 

Observe to what extent the British claim 
Africa. Trace the belt of British possessions that 
extends from the Cape to the Mediterranean. 
What variety of climate do these British colonies 
include? 


Several railways have already been men¬ 
tioned. Where are they ? Besides these, 
The need of and parts of the great rivers, 
more railways the three large lakes — Nyassa, 
here Tanganyika, and Victoria Ny- 

anza — are of great service in the trans¬ 
portation of goods. Already there are 
steamers upon these lakes. A railway con¬ 
nects Victoria Nyanza with the sea, and 
others are planned. But many more rail¬ 
ways are needed ; for otherwise caravans 
of native porters must bear the products on 
their backs, traveling along narrow paths 
through the forest. 


5 . Islands near Africa 

The island of Madagascar, which is larger 
than any of our states except Texas, lies a 
Islands on the little more than two hundred 
east side miles from the mainland. It 

contains much highland, especially on the 
eastern side; but the coastal region is low¬ 
land. The island is controlled by the 
French, and produces cattle, hides, valuable 
tropical woods, rubber, and coffee. While 
there are some Arabs, and tribes of negro 
origin in the west, the natives are for the 
most part Malays, called ffovas , who came 
by water from the northeast. 

The principal small islands on the eastern side of 
Africa are Zanzibar (British) near the coast, and 
Reunion (French), and Mauritius (British) east of 
Madagascar. Find each of these (Fig. 497). There 
are many others, as you can see. These islands are 


of value as naval stations. Their inhabitants are 
engaged in fishing and in agriculture, raising sugar 
cane and other tropical products. 

Of the many small islands near the western coast 
the northernmost are the Madeira Islands. These, 
together with the Cape Verde Islands 
farther southwest, have belonged to S a ° 8 0n e 
Portugal since the early Portuguese WCS S1 6 
voyages of discovery (p. 409). The Canary Islands, 
which belong to Spain, lie between these two groups. 

Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the 
equator, are volcanoes, like the other groups of 
islands just named. They belong to Great Britain. 
St. Helena is noted especially as the prison home of 
Napoleon Bonaparte. 


1 What is the general shape of Africa? What 
about the regularity of its coast line? 2. Describe 
the arrangement of its mountains p . 
and lowlands. 3. State the effect rwgtions 
of this arrangement on the rivers. ” 

4. Where are the principal lakes, and what are 
their names ? 5. Describe the climate in general. 
6. Tell about the forest belt. 7. The savannas 
north and south of it. 8. The two desert regions. 
9 What about the native plant rnd animal life? 

10. What about the native inhabitants of Africa? 

11. Tell about the exploration and settlement. 

12. What are the divisions of northern Africa, and 
what is their form of government? 13. What is 
the area of the Sahara? 14. Describe its surface 
features. 15. Tell about the caravans there. 16. De¬ 
scribe the climate of Egypt. 17. What can you tell 
about the Nile River? 18. Name the agricultural 
products of Egypt. 19. Give some facts in the 
history of that country. 20. Locate and describe 
the Suez Canal. 21. Locate and state the chief 
facts about the leading cities. 22. What about the 
surface, climate, and products of the Barbary States ? 
23. What is the character of the people? 24. Name 
and locate the principal cities. 25. How does the 
southern part of Africa resemble the northern part' 1 * 
26. State what you can about the government of the 
southern part. 27. What do you know about the 
agriculture there? 28. The mining? 29. The lack 
of conveniences for transportation ? 30. Locate 
and state the chief facts about the leading cities. 
31. How valuable are the rivers of central Africa 
for transportation? 32. Tell about the native in¬ 
habitants. 33. Locate the Sudan and name its 
divisions. What about conveniences for transpor¬ 
tation there? 34. State the principal facts about 
Abyssinia and surrounding territory. 35. Name 
and locate the small countries on the west coast. 
36. State the principal facts about the Belgian Congo 
and neighboring territory. 37. Explain the need 
of railways there? 38. Locate and describe Mad¬ 
agascar. 39. Locate island groups near Africa. To 
what nation does each group belong? 



422 


ASIA , AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , AND LSLAWD GROUPS 


1. Give several reasons why Africa has been ex¬ 
plored and settled so much later than either North 

_ , . or South America. 2. What rivers 

General review 

questions and 
comparisons 


of North America resemble those of 
Africa in having rapids and falls 
that interfere with commerce ? How 


have these obstacles been overcome in our rivers? 
3. Contrast the Mississippi River with the Nile. 
Make a drawing of each, show'ing the principal trib¬ 
utaries and towns. 4. Compare the Congo with 
the Missouri in length, with the Amazon (Appendix, 
p. 458). 5. Compare the area of Lake Victoria 

Nyanza with that of Lake Superior (Appendix, 
p. 458). 6. Is Africa, on the whole, as well adapted 

to agriculture as is South America? Give your 
reasons. 7. Make a sketch map of the Atlantic, 
and compare the position of Africa with that of 
South America. What part of America is in the 
same latitude as the Sahara? 8. Cape Horn is how 
much farther south than Cape of Good Hope? 
9. Why is not a large part of northern South 
America a desert, like northern Africa? 10. Com¬ 
pare southern Africa with southern South America 
in products and importance. Why the difference ? 

11. What products of Africa are also cultivated in 
the United States? 12. What products of Africa 
are not raised in our country ? 

1. What per cent of the present population of the 
United States belongs to the negro race? 2. Read 
the Bible story of Joseph in Egypt. 
3. Read the story of Moses. 4. Find 
out some facts about the Pyramids 5. Why is 
England especially benefited by the Suez Canal? 
6. What obstacles are in the way of building rail¬ 
ways across the Sahara? 7. Read about our short 
war with Tripoli in 1834. 8. Why was the south¬ 

ern point of Africa called the Cape of Good Hope? 

9. Examine a diamond to see how it has been cut. 

10. Find out something about missionary work in 
Africa. 11. Find out about the peculiar animal life 
upon the island of Madagascar. 12. Find some 
facts about Livingstone, Mungo Park, Stanley, and 
other African explorers. 13. Read one of the books 
of these explorers; you will find I)u Chaillu’s books 
on Africa very interesting. 14. Who were Barthol 
omew Diaz and Vasco da Gama, and what part did 
they take in the discovery of the water route to 
India? 15. Find out about Kruger and the British 
war with the Boers in 1900. 


Suggestions 


III. Australia and Island Groups 

i Australia 

1. Judging from the railways and cities, which is 
the best settled part of Australia? 2. Which part is 
least settled? 3. Can you suggest 
Map Questions any reasons for these facts ? 4. From 


the lakes and rivers, what do you conclude concern¬ 
ing the climate of the interior? 5. How does Tas¬ 
mania compare in area with Pennsylvania (Appendix, 
p. 452)? With your own state? 6. Make the 
same comparison for New Zealand. 7. For Borneo 
and New Guinea. 8. What nations claim parts of 
Borneo? New Guinea? 


Australia lies apart from the rest of the 
world. It is the smallest of the continents, 
the only continent wholly sur Location 
rounded by water, and the and area 
only continent wholly in the southern hemi¬ 
sphere. With its area of three million 
square miles, it approaches the United 
States or Europe in size. 

The surface, like that of Ireland, suggests 
a plate in form, since the low interior rises 
gradually to a broken rim of Surface 
plateaus and mountains of features 
moderate height. While there are some 
low, short ranges in the interior, the highest 
land is in the east, where the mountains 
run parallel to the coast. In the southeast 
some of the peaks reach a height of over 
a mile. 

The coast of Australia is so regular that 


for long distances there are no good harbors ; 
but the sinking of the land in the southeast¬ 
ern part has formed some excellent ports. 
Off the northeastern coast is the Grreat 
Barrier Reef ,, the longest coral reef in the 
world. 

What is the latitude of the northern part 
of Australia ? Of the south- 
ern part? What, therefore, ima e 
can you say about the temperature of the 
continent ? 

Australia lies within the belt of the south¬ 
east trade winds (Fig. 300). The eastern 
highland, therefore, has an abundant rain¬ 
fall, on its seaward side, and is clothed with 
dense forests. After crossing the moun¬ 
tains, however, the winds are so dry that 
the forest gradually disappears; and the 
interior is a vast desert. It is therefore 
only along portions of the coast that there 
is enough rainfall for agriculture, while the 
interior, and much of the greater part of 
the continent, is either arid or desert. 





























































































424 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 


The maps of Australia show a striking 
lack of large rivers. Some of the streams 
end in salt lakes, and others 
evaporate in the dry climate. 
Many unite with the Darling 
tion ° f p ° pula * an( l Murray rivers ; but these 
only at times are navigable for 
long distances. During the dry summer 


Effect of rain 
fall on rivers 
and distribu- 


the southeastern part seems capable of sup¬ 
porting a dense population. 

Australian vegetation is peculiar and well suited 
to the climate of the country. 

Among the desert grasses, one of Native plants 
the most remarkable is the porcu¬ 
pine grass, which is so hard, wiry, and spiny as to 
prevent passage through it. 

The “ scrub ” trees of the arid interior have de- 





Mvdei<'.« by 




Fig. 519. — Relief map of Australia. 


season all except the Murray may dwindle 
to mere chains of water holes. A sand bar 
at the mouth of the Murray River closes it 
to ocean steamers, so that, unlike the Mis¬ 
sissippi, no large cities have grown up along 
its banks. 

Partly because of the desert, and partly 
because of the absence of navigable streams, 
there are large tracts in the interior about 
which, even now, little is known. Only 


veloped a foliage able to resist evaporation. Forex- 
ample, the gum trees (Eucalyptus) hold their 
narrow leaf blades vertically, with only the edges 
toward the sun’s rays ; the leaves of wattles (Acacia) 
and other plants have shrunk to thorns; and some 
trees secrete odorous oils which check evaporation. 
Plants with leaves which taste of salt also thrive 
here. These “ salt bushes ” are so valuable as forage 
for sheep and cattle that they are now introduced 
into the arid section of southwestern United States. 

On the equable rainy slopes, near the coast, some 
of the gum trees are giants. They rival the “ Big 








FIG. 520. 



































































426 


ASIA, AFRICA , AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 




Fig. 521. — Tree ferns and other undergrowth in the Australian forest. 


Trees ” of California, which also thrive where damp 
winds blow from the ocean. The undergrowth of 
the forest (Fig. 521), which is almost tropical in 
character, includes tree ferns, palms, and orchids. 
These dense woods are called the “ bush.” 

Figure 523 shows the more important animals, in¬ 
cluding the rabbit, which was introduced into Aus¬ 
tralia from Europe. What are their 
names? They are very different 
from animals in other parts of the 
world, because Australia is so far separated by 
water from all the other continents that animals 
from other places have not been able to migrate 
there. 


Native ani¬ 
mals 


increased, they brought it about 
that criminals were no longer 
sent there. 

Almost at the same time that 
gold was discovered in Cali¬ 
fornia, it was also 3. Effect of 
found in Australia, discovery of 
and tens of thou- gold 
sands of people rushed there to 
wash the sands for the precious 
metal. Since the miners needed 
supplies, many of the settlers 
turned their attention to other 
industries, especially agriculture 
and grazing. Therefore, in Aus¬ 
tralia, as in California, the gold 
mines quickly led to the develop¬ 
ment of the country’s resources. 
New South Wales, as the first colony was 
called, finally grew so large, and the settle¬ 
ments were so scattered, that 
it became difficult to control 
the whole colony under a single government. 
To meet this difficulty, Tasmania, Victoria, 


4. Government 


History 

1. Native in¬ 
habitants and 
their manner of 
life 


When discovered, Australia was sparsely 
settled by blacks, related to the negroes of 
Africa. Some of these natives 
still live in the interior, build¬ 
ing the rudest of shelters, and 
gaining their living by hunt¬ 
ing. They still use that pe¬ 
culiar weapon, the boomerang , which, when 
skillfully thrown, will fly in curves and 
even return to the thrower. 

Although it had long been known that 

continent, settle- 
not made there 
For a time the dis- 


o— -- - 

there was an Australian 


2. Early set¬ 
tlement 


ments were 
until 1788. 

tant land was used as an English prison ; 
and naturally, under such conditions, not 
many free settlers came to the country. 
Some came, however, and as their number 


Fig. 522. — Australian natives, who have just 
killed a kangaroo with the boomerang. 
The boy holds a boomerang in his hands. 








RABBIT 


ECHIDNA 


KOALA 


APTERYX 


CASSOWARY 


EMU 


PLATYPUS 


KANGAROO 


The M.N.Co.iBuFFALO. 






¥ 

Ivlw 




i 


Fig 523. — Some of the Australian animals. 








428 


ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 


and Queensland were one by one set off as sep¬ 
arate colonies. South Australia and Western 
Australia were settled as distinct colonies. 

The colonies have so many interests in 
common, that, in 1901, they united to form 
the Commonwealth of Australia. This 
commonwealth has a government similar to 



Fig. 524. — Deiisity of population in Australia and neigh¬ 
boring islands. 


that of Canada, and is independent of Eng¬ 
land in all matters except those which affect 
the British Empire as a whole. 

Although it was gold that brought the 
Agriculture rush of settlers to Australia, 
l. Sheep her greatest wealth lies in her 

raising flocks of Merino sheep. Aus¬ 

tralian wool is the finest in the world. 


Sheep were first known in Asia, where doubtless 
they were originally wild animals; and the ancestors 
of the Merino were such as those tended by Jacob. 
From Asia the breed spread along the Mediterranean 
and found in Spain a favorable, dry climate. From 
this point flocks were taken to the early Dutch 
colony of South Africa, and thence to Australia. 
Here the dry climate and native plants have still 
further improved the quality of the wool. 

In the early days of Australia the flocks 
were reared upon the unfenced government 
land, as in the western part of the United 
States (p. 147). The sheep were driven to 
pasture and watered and cared for at night 


by lonely shepherds, much as in the days of 
David. Now, however, the land is largely 
fenced with wire, each sheep station having 
its own run, or ranch. To-day grazing is 
the most typical as well as the leading occu¬ 
pation in Australia. There are over eighty- 
tliree million sheep, and wool is the principal 
export of the commonwealth. 

Horses, cattle, and swine are also raised in large 
numbers; and frozen or canned beef and mutton, 
together with hides and tallow, are n , 
exported. Many cattle are raised mals and animal 
for their dairy products, and butter p roduc t s 
is sent to England. At the season 
when the cows of Belgium and Denmark are kept in 
barns on account of the cold, the dairy herds of New 
South Wales feed on fresh pastures. How can you 
account for this fact? 


On the damp lowlands, where there is 

rainfall enough, and in the interior where 

irrigation is possible, there is „ „ 

\ r , T ’ , 3. Farming 

much farming. Next to hay, 

wheat (Eig. 586) is the most important 

crop, and flour forms one of the chief 

exports of the country. 

The farm products vary with the climate. 
For example, oats and other hardy grains are 
raised in the cooler south, while corn is im¬ 
portant only from New South Wales north¬ 
ward. There are large sugar plantations 
in Queensland; and along the northern 
coast tropical products are obtained. Much 
fruit is raised, and this, too, varies with the 
climate. Oranges are grown in the north, 
and the orchard and small fruits of cool 
temperate lands in the south. In Victoria 
and South Australia, there are many vine¬ 
yards. 

On the coral reefs east of the mainland, 
and along the northern coast of Australia, 
small sailboats are engaged in Fishing and 
fishing for pearls, pearl shell, mining 
and other products of tropical waters. 

The gold of Australia, like that of Cali¬ 
fornia, was first found in the gravels; but 
mines were later opened along the veins in 
the mountain rocks. Gold mining is still 
very important, and Australia ranks third 
among gold-producing nations (Fig. 556). 









AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 


429 



Fig. 525. — Harvesting oats in Australia. 


Copper, silver, and tin are other important 
metals found in Australia. Coal of good 
quality exists in several places, the best- 
developed field being near the coast of New 
South Wales. Rich iron ores, together with 
limestone, are found near these coal fields. 

Some wool is woven into cloth; some 
leather is tanned and made into shoes ; and 

„ , . . much flour is made from the 

Manufacturing 

wheat. 1 here are sawmills and 
planing mills ; and other forms of simple 
manufacturing are carried on. But most of 
the manufactured goods used in the country 
are imported. They are largely obtained from 
England, and are paid for with raw products. 

Australian cities have grown very rapidly, 
and one third of the people live in the capi- 
Principal cities tals of the six divisions of the 
l. The capitals commonwealth. These capi¬ 
tals are seaports connected with the interior 
by railway, and have therefore become the 
leading commercial centers. i hey have 
fine government buildings and large public 
parks and gardens. 

Melbourne, the largest city in size in 
Australia and the capital of \ ictoria, is 


beautifully situated at the head of a broad 
harbor. Sydney (Fig. 526), the second 
city of Australia and the capital of New 












430 


ASIA , AFRICA, AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 


South Wales, was founded in 1788, and is, 
therefore, the oldest city of Australia. 
Both of these cities rank among the 
great seaports of the British Empire. 
Adelaide is a third large city. Of which 
division is it the capital? Name the other 
capitals. 


Since nine tenths of the Australians live on the 
coast lands, much of the commerce is carried on by 
means of steamboats, and most of 
the cities are seaports connected by 
rail with the interior farms, mines, 
and sheep country. A few mining centers, like Bal¬ 
larat and Bendigo, in Victoria, have become large 
towns. 


2. Mining 
centers 


2 . Island Groups 

More than a thousand miles southeast of 
Australia are the two large mountainous is- 
New Zealand lands of New Zealand. In 
1. Surface and South Island there are great 
climate glaciers among the mountains-; 

while in North Island there are active vol¬ 
canoes, and also hot springs and geysers 



Fig. 527. — A geyser in eruption in 
New Zealand. 


(Fig. 527), like those of the Yellowstone 
National Park. 

Since these islands lie in the belt of 
stormy west winds, there is heavy rainfall 
on the western slopes. The mountains are 
therefore clothed with forests of pine and 
other trees. On the lee, or eastern, slopes 
the rainfall is less, and the land is cov¬ 
ered with wiry grasses. What effect must 
the presence of water on all sides have upon 
the temperature ? 

The native people, or Maoris, who must have come 
to the islands in boats, were a hardy, warlike race, 
living in protected villages, in the 
midst of cultivated fields. At first habitant^ ^ 
they opposed the white men, and the 
country was not settled until a half century after 
the founding of Sydney. After a time the Maoris 
were conquered, and those that survive live mostly in 
the interior of the North Island. Many of them are 
civilized, and they are now allowed representatives in 
the legislature. 

As in Australia, pastoral industries take 
the lead. There are twenty million sheep, 
and wool and frozen mutton 3 industries 
are exported to England. Cat- and government 
tie are likewise kept, and butter is exported. 
Agriculture is important, but much land 
that is suited to farming has never been 
cleared of forest. 

In the south the crops are those of the cool 
temperate belt; but in the north the climate 
is mild enough for the growth of oranges. 
There are gold, silver, and coal mines among 
the mountains ; and valuable timber is ob¬ 
tained from their slopes. Manufacturing is 
only slightly developed, and is chiefly for 
home use. 


The situation of these islands, in the temperate 
zone, is favorable to rapid progress, and the British 
people who have settled here have done much to de¬ 
velop the resources. They have also established one 
of the best governments in the world. Being so far 
away from Australia, and therefore, with such dif¬ 
ferent interests, New Zealand has not joined the Aus¬ 
tralian Commonwealth. 

Several short lines of railway connect the settled 
interior with the seaports; roads 
and stage lines extend to the more ' ,^ 0 , mi ? er ^ e 
distant districts; and steamers ply an c e C1 ea 
around the coasts and to distant countries. There 











AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 


431 


are four cities of nearly the same size, the 
smallest of which is Dunedin, and the largest, 
Auckland. Find the other two. 

Between Asia and Australia are hundreds 
of islands, some very large* others so small 
The East that they find no place on our 
Indies map. Of these the greater 

l. Divisions number have animals, plants, 
among them and people similar to those of 
Asia. New Guinea, however, which is 
nearest to Australia, resembles that conti¬ 
nent rather than Asia. 


While the islands farther west are overrun with 
Malays from Asia, the natives of New Guinea are 
like the native Australians. The animal life also 
resembles that of Australia. Tt is believed, therefore, 
that New Guinea and Australia were once connected. 
For these reasons New Guinea is usually considered 
a part of Australia, while the islands to the west and 
northwest are classed with Asia. 

The Philippine Islands , which belong to the United 
States, are really a northern extension of the East 
Indies. What can you tell about them (p. 174) ? 

Many of the islands of this region, in¬ 
cluding Sumatra, Java, the Celebes, and a 
2 . Government large part of Borneo and New 
of the islands Guinea are Dutch colonies. 
What nations control the island of Timor? 
What two nations have possession of New 
Guinea ? 


The immense size of these islands is shown by the 

fact that Java has a greater area than New York 

„ . State, while Sumatra is larger than 

3 Their area r , .... r> ° , .. 

Ualilornia. Borneo, one of the 

largest islands in the world, is larger than all the 
New England and Middle Atlantic States together. 

New Guinea , another of the largest islands in the 
world, has an area greater than that of Texas. The 
Dutch East Indies alone are fifty-eight times as 
large as The Netherlands, and have over six times 
as many inhabitants, or not quite half as many as 
the United States. 

All of the larger islands are mountainous ; 
in fact, they are parts of mountain ranges 
4. Their sur- rising out of the sea, and among 
face and climate them are many active volca¬ 
noes, some of which have had terribly de¬ 
structive eruptions. Many of the smaller 
islands are merely coral reefs slightly raised 
above the ocean. 


Lying so near the equator, all the islands 
have a tropical temperature and heavy rain¬ 
fall. The dampness and heat together make 
them very unhealthful in places. Because of 
the climate, and of the mountains and the 
dense jungles, there are large areas which 
have never been explored. 

The forests supply valuable woods and 
gums, including rubber and camphor. Large 
areas, especially in Java, are c 

. . . . r . . J , ’ 5. The products 

highly cultivated and produce 

quantities of rice, sugar cane, and coffee. 



Fig. 528 —New Guinea houses built in trees. 


In the production of the last two articles, 
Java is one of the leading regions of the 
world (Bigs. 539 and 542). Among the 
noted products of the East Indies are spices, 
such as pepper, cloves, and nutmegs in 
fact, one of the island groups is known as 
the Spice Islands. What is its other name ? 
There are also valuable minerals, including 
tin, gold, and precious stones; and in the 
tropical sea beautiful pearl shells are found. 

The largest city among all the islands in 
this region is Manila, in the Philippines ; 
and next in size is Batavia, the center of 
the Dutch colonial government. 





432 


ASIA , AFRICA, AUSTRALIA , AND ISLAND GROUPS 



Fig. 529. — A Malay village built on piles in the water. 



Islands of the 
Pacific 


The map (Fig. 518) shows the western Pacific 
dotted with island groups ; but all these islands are 
very small. Name and locate those 
that belong to the United 
States. Locate those that 
belong to Great Britain. Australia has 
now control of several south of the equa¬ 
tor which the British secured from Ger¬ 
many in 1919. 

The “ high,” or volcanic islands, 
like Fiji and New Caledonia, have 
peaks which rise several thousand 
feet. On these islands there are 
sugar and coffee plantations, as in 
Hawaii, while tropical fruits, such 
as bananas and pineapples, are 
raised in large quantities. 

On the “ low,” or coral islands, 
on the other hand, the cocoanut 
palm is the mainstay of human life, 
supplying food, clothing, shelter, 
boats, and many utensils. Copra, the 
main export from Samoa, and from 
many other Pacific islands, is the 
dried meat of the cocoanut. It is of 
value for food, as well as for its oil. 

1. Descrihe the surface of Aus¬ 
tralia, including the coast line. 

Review 2 ,\ D f= r ‘ be 0 the 

Questions 3 ' 

the effect of the 

rainfall on rivers, and distribu¬ 
tion of population. 4. What 
about the native plants ? 

5.' Native animals? 6. In the 
history of the country, give 


A 


Fig. 590. — A native of Fiji Islands. 


some facts about the native inhabitants; the early 
settlements; effect of discovery of gold; the govern¬ 
ment. 7. State the principal facts about sheep 
ranching. 8. Other animals and animal prod¬ 
ucts. 9. Name the chief farm products. How 
are they distributed? 10. What about fish¬ 
ing? 11. What mineral products are found? 

12. What is the condition of manufacturing? 

13. Name and locate the principal cities. For 
what is each important? 14. What are the 

surface features and climate of New Zea¬ 
land? 15. What about the native 
inhabitants? 16. The industries 
and government? 17. Name and 
locate the chief cities. 18. Tell 
about the East Indies; divisions 
among them; government; area; 
surface and climate; products and chief 
city. 19. What can you tell about the 
islands of the Pacific? 

1. Australia resembles South Africa in 
its surface, climate, occupations, and prod¬ 
ucts. Show how this is _ 
true. 2. Australia also Gene + r .al review 

n resembles the western part ^ Ues 10ns an 
ot the United States in r 
climate, in occupation and products, and 
in the order of development 
of her resources. Show how 
this is true, also. 3. In what 
respects does southern South 
America (Chile and Argen¬ 
tina) resemble Australia ? 
4. What part of Australia 
has the same latitude, in the 
southern hemisphere, that 










AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS 


433 


southern Florida has in the northern? 5. Which 
one of our states most nearly equals New Zealand in 
area? 6. What peninsula of Europe resembles 
New Zealand in shape? How do the two countries 
compare in area? In population? 7. What part 
of South America most resembles the East Indies 
in climate and products? What part of North 
America most resembles them in these respects? 

1. If it were within your power, how would you 
arrange the highlands of Australia so as to secure 
. the most even distribution of rain ? 

2. Estimate the greatest length of 
New Zealand. Compare it with a line extending 
from New Orleans northward. 3. Estimate the dis¬ 
tance from Batavia to Manila. 4. Write your im¬ 


pression of the climate of Melbourne in January; in 
July. 5. Through some fruit dealer obtain a cocoa- 
nut in its husk, and examine it. 6. Read Whittier’s 
poem on the Palm Tree. 7. Learn something about 
the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. 
8. Collect pictures for the school, showing the Pacific 
islands and their life. 9. By what routes can onego 
from New York City to Australia? Through what 
waters? Which route is the shortest? About how 
many miles shorter ? 10. Answer the same questions 

for a voyage from New York to Manila. 11. Read 
in Tarr’s “Elementary Geology” (pp. 251-256) 
about the origin of atolls. 12. Read about the 
eruption of Krakatoa (same book, p. 343) in the 
Sunda Strait, near Batavia. 



PART VI. REVIEW OF UNITED STATES AND 
COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES* 



British 

Empire 

Russia and 
Possessions 

France and 
Possessions 

China 

United 
States and 

Possessions 

Brazil 

1914 . . . 

12,780,381 

8,417,000 

4,983,180 

4,277,170 

3,742,441 

3,275,510 

1919 . . . 

14,072,000 

undetermined 

4,989,600 

4,277,170 

3,742,583 

3,275,510 


Fig. 531. — Estimated areas in square miles of the six largest uatious before and after the World 

War. 

that of European Russia (p. 331) ; of 
Brazil (p. 267); of China (p. 395). 

What is the latitude of the climate 
northern and of the southern 
boundary of the United States? Compare 


In spite of the vast extent of the United 
Area and States, there are four countries 

population in the old world with a 

greater area. Which are they (Fig. 531)? 
Which coun¬ 
try is fifth in 
size ? Sixth ? 

Compare the 
United States 
with each of 
these in area. 

The United 
States ranks 

fourth i n population (Fig. 532). Name the 
six most populous countries in the order of 
their rank. Figure 534 shows the density 
of popidation, or the number of people per 
square mile, in some of the countries in the 
world. From 
this it will be 
seen that the 
United States 
is very thinly 
settled, com¬ 
pared with 
many coun¬ 
tries. Com¬ 
pare the United states in this regard with 
Belgium, England, Cuba, Mexico, and 
Canada. 

Name and locate the principal mountain 
Density of systems in the United States ; 
population in the chief ranges in the West. 

Describe the drainage of the 
United States. Name and lo¬ 
cate our principal rivers. Which continent 
has its principal mountains arranged most 
like those of North America? Show this. 


How does the arrangement of mountains in 
North America compare with Surface 
that of Europe ? Compare features 
the surface of the United States with 



British 

Empire 

China 

Russia and 
Possessions 

United States 
and 

Possessions 

France and 
Possessions 

German Em¬ 
pire and 
Germany 

1914 . . . 

440,519,000 

320,650,000 

182,182,600 

101,402,151 

89,449,000 

77,900,993 

1919 . . . 

463,534,000 

400,000,000 

undetermined 

115,010,000 

92,558,000 

53,565,000 


Fig. 532. — Estimated gains and losses in population of the six nations which were most populous 

before the World War. 


the latitude of our country with that of the 
British Isles (Fig. 3) ; with that of Ger¬ 
many, Italy, Egypt, India, China, Argen¬ 
tina, Australia. 

How do ocean currents affect the temper¬ 
ature of the eastern part of our country ? 
Of the western part (p. 243)? Compare 
our temperature with that of countries 
in Europe having most nearly the same 
latitude (p. 286). Why the difference 
(p. 287)? 

*The statistics in this section are taken, in the main, from U. S. Census Reports, the Statesman’s Year-Book, 
1919, and the Statistical Abstract of the United States. 

434 


several 

countries 


































DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE IN THE AVORLD 



Coiupile«I by Prof. Mark Jefferson 





































































































436 


REVIEW OF UNITED STATES 


Belgium 


655 


China 


266 


Tell about the prevailing winds and the 
rainfall in western United States (p. 231) ; 
the cyclonic storms and their 
effects (p. 236); the prevail¬ 
ing winds of Europe (p. 287); 
the rainfall there, with rea¬ 
sons (p. 238). In what re¬ 
spects are North America and 
Europe alike in regard to 
winds and rain ? 

What about native plants 
and animals in the northern 
Native plants part of North 
and animals America (p. 17)? 

In the arid part of the United 
States (p. 20) ? In other 
parts of the United States 
(p. 21) ? In tropical North 
America (p. 23) ? Compare 
the native plants and animals 
of North America with those 
of South America (p. 263) ; 

Africa (p. 408) ; Asia (p. 

379); Australia (p. 424). 

In spite of the fact that 
Raw food some nations are 

products more densely settled, the 

1. Com United States leads the world 

in many very important respects, and ap¬ 


proaches leadership in several others. Fig¬ 
ure 535 shows that no nation is a close rival 


Russia 


66 


Chiie 


11 


England & Wales 616 


France 


190 


Cuba 


46 


Brazil 


6.6 


Japan 


343 


India 


167 


United Slates 30.9 


Argentina 


5.9 


Germany 


310 


Spain 


96 


Hawaii 


29.75 


Australia 


1.5 


Italy 


309 


Philippine Is. 71.9 


Mexico 


19 


Canada 


1.48 


Fig. 534.—Density of population of some of the countries of the world (1910). 


larger and 



2. Wheat 


to us in the area of corn production. What 
countries, however, raise large quantities of 
it ? Why is no corn raised in the British 
Isles (p. 292) ? 

Wheat is more 
widely culti- 
vatecl 
than 

corn (Fig. 536). 
In 1918, the United 
States produced 
917,100,000 bush¬ 
els. Point out 
(Fig. 536) the 
leading wheat 
fields of the 
world. Which 
sections are im¬ 
portant for both 
wheat and corn? 
On which side of 
the Atlantic is 
wheat raised far- 









































































































































































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


437 





EUROPE 


fORTH/AMERICA 


AFRICA 


40 Beet Sugar 

1. Germany 

2. Russia 


'AUSTRALIA 

i / 


EUROPE 


NORTH AMERICA 


ASIA 


AFRICA’ 


STRALIA'. 




1 Russia 

2. United States 

3 . India 

4. Franee 

a!-*- A islna-ll ungary 
6. Italy 

7 Canada 

5. Spam 

rriMt 


GEO 


GRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 


OP WHEAT 


180" 


' 


Fig. 53d. — Wheat sections of the world. 


Russia 


United States 


699,413,000 Bushels 


695443,000 


India 


France 


357,941,000 


259,180,000 


Austria- 

Hungary 


241494,000 


Italy 


Italy 153,337,000 


Fig. 537. —Six leading wheat-producing countries (1910). 


I.- 


:■■■ 






Cane Sugar 

1. British India 

2. Cuba 


3. Austna-Hungary 

4. France 

5. United States 

6. Belgium 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 
OF CANE AND BEET SUGAR 


3 United States 

4. Java 

5. British Guiana 

6. Formosa 


12) 


L20 


thest north? Why 
(p. 244)? Name 
in order the six 
countries that 
lead in the pro¬ 
duction of this 
grain (Fig. 537). 

3. Sugar cane 
and sugar beets 

Note what sec¬ 
tions of the world 
raise sugar cane 
and sugar beets 
(Fig. 538). Name 
countries and 
islands engaged 
in these indus¬ 
tries. Is it main¬ 
ly the sugar beet 
or sugar 
cane that is 
raised in 
Europe? 
W h y ( p. 
344)? What 
is our rank 
in the rais¬ 
ing of sugar 
cane and 
sugar beets 
(Fig- 538)? 
Name the six 
regions that 
lead in this 
kind of agri¬ 
culture. 

4. Rice 

Figure 540 
shows the 
principal rice 
sections of the 
world. What 
continent 
grows by far 
the largest 
amount? 
What coun- 


Fig. 538. — Sugar cane aud sugar beet sections of the world. 












































































HE VIEW OF UNITED STATES 


438 


tries in that 
c o n t i n e nt ? 
What other 
parts of the 
world produce 
much of it ? 
What parts of 
the United 
States? What 
climate does it 
require, and 
how is it raised 

(p. 88)? 

Figure 541 
shows that 
coffee is not 
„ grown 

within 
our states, al¬ 
though in al¬ 
most every 
household it 
is used every 
day. Notice, 
however, that 
it is produced 
in Cuba, Porto 
Rico, and the 
Philippine Is¬ 
lands (Fig. 


British India 


Cuba 



1,900,000 


United States 


Java 


1,266,000 


1,175,000 


British 

° ulana Formosa 


310,000 


230.000 


Fig. 539. — Tlie six countries producing the most cane sugar (1910). 



Fig. 540. — Rice sections of the world. 



parts of the 


Fig. 541. — Coffee-producing sections of the world. 

































































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


439 


Brazil 

1.483,172,000 Pounds 

West Indies 

96.261,000 

Venezuela 

93,916,000 

Colombia 

92,598,000 

Guatemala 

86,168,000 

Salvador 

62,764,000 


Fig. 542. — Leading coffee-producing countries (1910). 





Fig 544. — Cattle and sheep sections of the world. 




















































440 


REVIEW OF UNITED STATES 


world? Name the principal countries and 
islands. 

Note the distribution of cattle and sheep 
(Fig. 544). What 


iron for use in manufacturing has often been 
pointed out. Figure 550 shows that the 
coal fields are very limited. What coun- 


7. Meat 


countries are in¬ 
cluded ? 
Recall 
some facts concern¬ 
ing sheep raising in 
Australia, Argen¬ 
tina, and the United 
States. Why are 
cattle and sheep 


Australasia 



Argentina 


414,465.000 


United States Turkish Empire 


821,863.000 


286 , 600,000 


Russian 

Empire 


212,000,000141,940,000 


United 

Kingdom 


Fig. 545. — The six leading wool-producing countries (1910). 


raised in the same regions ? 

Raw textile 

products leading wooZ-producing coun- 


Fiomre 545 shows the six 

O 


2. Cotton 


l Wool tries 

the rank of the 
United States? 

Cotton is lim¬ 
ited to 
w a r m 
climates, so that 
fewer countries 
raise it. Name 
the principal sec¬ 
tions (Fig. 546). 
Within what par¬ 
allels of latitude 
are they found ? 
Name the five 
countries that 
lead in its pro¬ 
duction (Fig. 
547). How much 
greater is the 
output of the 
United States than 


Name them. What is 


tries have little or no coal? Mineral 
Name the leading coal-produc- products 
ing sections, and state the rank 1 - Coal 



Fig. 546. — The cotton sections ol the world. 


3. Raw silk 


that of the five other 

countries together? 

Figure 548 shows the sections that 
produce silk. What are their names ? 

What about this indus¬ 
try in the United States ? 

Name the countries, in order, that 
produce most raw silk (Fig. 549). 
Recall how the work is carried on 
(p. 315). 

The great importance of coal and 


of the United States in the production of 
this mineral (Fig. 551). 

United States 


11,483,000 Bales of 500 lb 



India 


'8,082,000 


Egypt Russia 


1,506,000 


900,000 


China 775,000 
Brazil 310,000 


Fig. 547. —The six leading cotton-producing countries (1910). 




































































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


441 



Japan China 
















































































442 


REVIEW OF UNITER STATES 


The United States 
leads the world in 
the pro- 

2. Petroleum , . 

duction 

of petroleum , or min¬ 
eral oil (Fig. 552). 
The second most im¬ 
portant district is in 
Russia, near the 
Caspian Sea. 

Other districts 
produce little 
petroleum. 

What are its 
uses ? 


United States 


501,596,878 Short Tons 



Great Britain 


296,007,699 


Germanv 


245,043,120 


A-H 


Austria-Hungary 
France 
Belgium 

Fig. 551. — The six leading coal-prodncing countries (1910). 


54,573,788 

*2,516,282 

26,874,986 


3. Iron ore and 
pig iron 

Is iron ore 
more or less 
widely dis¬ 
tributed than 
coal (Fig. 

553) ? How 
does the 
United States 
rank in the 
output of this 
mineral (Fig 

554) ? How 
does the output of 
coal and iron cor¬ 
respond to the 
importance of 
countries as man¬ 
ufacturing na¬ 
tions (Fig. 560)? 

4. The precious 
metals 

Tell about the 
distribution of 
gold (Fig. 555), 
and give our 
rank in the pro¬ 
duction of that 
metal (Fig. 556). 

Where are the 
principal silver- 



GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 
OF RUBBER AND PETROLEUM 


WILLIAMS ENGRAVING CO., N.Y. 


120 ° 


120 ° 


Fig. 552. — The leading petroleum-producing sections of the world. 


00 ° 


120 ° 


I 80 ‘ 


L 

c 

u l 

U; 

tr*. 

A 6 ^ 

• o, 

rk 

:> r 

T 

r ~y e \ 

NO 



/ A sUl( 

S yf\\ • 

V'ir 




v AFRICA -/ 

^ /" A 

\/ * < 

x-S ^0, 

7 

\ 

1. United State* 

2. Germany 

3. Great Britain 

4. Spain 

5. France 

6. Russia 

7. Sweden 

8. Austria-Hungary 

Iron Ores 

\k J 

w 

§ 

o /] 

ImT 

w 

Y KL' 

(y a - 

.Aufe 

feA,. 

v 

(.o g 
Ij-c ) 

9 

% 

GEC 

(GRAPHIC DI 
OF IRON 

_ 

STRTBUTION 

ORES 


•10 


00 


Fig. 553. — Leading sections of the world that produce iron ore. 


























































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


443 


milling sections (Fig. 557) ? How does the tities of other minerals. Name some of 
United States compare with other countries them (pp. 118 and 119). In the production 



United States 


26,108,199 Tons , 


Germany 


12,917,653 


-United Kingdom 
9,818,916 


France Russia 


3,632,105 


2,871,332 


Austria- 


Hungary B 

C 

1,958,786 




Belgium 1,632,350 
Canada 687,1)23 


Fig. 554. —The eight leading pig-iron-producing countries (1910). 


in this product (Fig. 558) ? Notice to what of some, such as copper and mat- 5. other min- 
extent the world is indebted to the New ural gas, our country also leads, eral products 




0 ' 120 " 6 


<£ 

. £ 

4 ■ UW 

KffSL 
W «fyC- 

\A: 

i 


1 a 

fl»o 



c "L. 

VE 

N0RTH AMERICA ^ 

% 0 £ 

^^^EUROpk)^! 

S' ■« 

rrtr 

a-. ’***• .. 

\ ,SIA 

fg 


0 

1 


lyH. • 

5 l 

v(r 

«» ^ U^-—. '^-0 l ' v - 

AFRICA f\\ 

*7 y 

e% yU 

7 

«o 

o' 

1 . Africa 

2. United States 

3. - Australasia 

* 

So 

W, 

tlC# y 

y y .4 • ■■ 

\ufi - 

AUSTRALIA^ 

-i 3 v 

5. Mexico 

6 . British India 

Gold Ores 

t 

i 

; T 

ji 0 

GEOGRi 

( 

: 

lPHIC distrii 

IF GOLD ORES 

UTION 

*■ ~r 



180° _120“_60*_ O' ___60°_120°_180* 


Fig. 555. — Leading gold-producing sections of the world. 

World for silver. How does the value of the According to Figure 559, what two conti- 
total silver production compare with that of nents lead in manufactur- Manufacturing 


Africa 



Fig. 55G. —The six leading gold-producing countries (1910). 


gold in the five leading regions for each ? 
The United States produces great quan- 


ing? What other smaller sections are ac¬ 
tive in this industry ? Taking into account 






















































REVIEW OF UNITED STATES 


444 


the size of 
our coun¬ 
try, the abun¬ 
dance of out¬ 
law materials, 
and the ener¬ 
gy and intel¬ 
ligence of our 
people, it is 
not surprising 
that we sur¬ 
pass all other 
countries in 
such work 
(Fig. 560). 

State the rank 
of other lead¬ 
ing nations in 
this occupa¬ 
tion. 

Into what articles is 
corn manufactured .in the 
United States (p. 108) ? 
Where (p. 109)? Answer 
the same questions about 
wheat (p. 110). A\ hat 
are the leading centers 
for the preparation of 
meats in the United States 
(p. 122) ? What coun¬ 
tries in South 
America are ex¬ 
tensively engaged 
in this industry 
(pp. 27 0 and 271)? 

In what parts of 
the United States 
is most cotton 
manufactu ring 
carried on (p. 

9 4) ? W h y 
there? What 
other countries 
have much cotton 
manufacturing? 

What countries of 
the world are 
noted for the 



Mexico 



Fig. 558. — The six leading silver-producing countries (1910). 



Fig, 559. — Manufacturing sections of the world. 
















































































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


445 


manufacture of pig iron and other iron and 
steel goods? Name great centers for this 

United States 



Fig. 560. — The four leading manufacturing countries (1910). 


industry in our 
countries. 


own country; in foreign 


It has a far greater number of miles of 
railway than any other nation (Fig. 561); 
but several small Euro- Commerce 
pean nations have a great- i. conven¬ 
er number of miles in iences for trans¬ 
proportion to their area. P ortation 
The United States ranks second in 
provision for transportation by water 
(Fig. 562). State the rank of the live 
chief countries in total length of rail¬ 
ways, and in merchant marine. Give 
reasons why the United Kingdom should 
in merchant marine (p. 302). Why 


lead 


United States 


should Norway be of importance in this 
respect (p. 326) ? 

We produce many more raw prod¬ 
ucts and manufacture many more 
goods than we can use. 

These we send abroad, 
or export, to other coun¬ 
tries, and for that reason l 1 ) 0ur exports 
they are called our exports. The 
values of our exports in crude mate- 

Fkj. 561. The six countries having greatest length of railways (1910). ^ ^ manufaotured articles for 

the years 1910-1911, 1913-1914, and 1917- 
1918 are summarized in the following table : 



2. Our trade 
with foreign 
countries 


In provision for transportation by rail the 
United States also takes the leading place. 


Exports from the United States 


Year Crude Materials 

for 

Manufacturing 

(Census year) $713,018,206 
1910-1911 

(Last normal year) 792,716,109 
1913-1914 


(War year) 897,328,794 

1917-1918 


Foodstuffs (crude) 
and 

Food Animals 

Foodstuffs Wholly 
or Partly 
Manufactured 

Manufactures for 
Further Use in 
Manufacturing 

Manufactures in 
Complete Form 

Miscellaneous 

Manufactured 

Articles 

103,401,553 

282,016,883 

309,151,989 

598,367,852 

7,592,542 

137,495,121 

293,218,336 

374,224,210 

724,908,000 

7,122,249 

375,541,940 

1,153,448,051 

1,203,916,333 

2,191,137,089 

25,787,471 


In 1913-1914 how did the manufactured exports rank in value as compared with 

- 1 - • 1 O T_ 


United Kingdom 



United States 


7,508,082 


Germany Norway France 


4,301,421 


2,021,103 


1,899,625 


Italy 


1,407,800 


Fig. 562.—The six countries having the largest merchant marine (1910). 


raw materials ? In 1917— 
1918 ? Can you explain the 
change ? 

While there is thus an enor¬ 
mous quantity of goods that 
we sell to other countries, we 
must also buy many other 
things. One of these is coffee, 
as shown in Figure 542. We 










































446 


REVIEW OF UNITED STATES 


produce far less sugar each year than we 

consume; we depend wholly on foreign 

nations for raw silk (Fig. 

(2) Our imports rtn.^ , i , 

549); our tea comes almost 

entirely from abroad (Fig. 543); and while 

much rice is produced in our Southern 

States, a large amount has to be purchased. 


These goods, and many others, have to be 
brought to our shores, or imported , from 
other countries, and for that reason they 
are called our imports. 

Our imports for the same years, classified 
in the same way, were as follows: 


Imports into the 


United States 


Tear 

1910-1911 

1913-1914 

1917-1918 


Crude Materials 
for 

Manufacturing 

$511,362,140 

632,865,860 

1,227,283,280 


Foodstuffs (crude) 
and 

Food Animals 

181,194,863 

247,974,621 

372,681,751 


Foodstuffs Wholly 
or Partly 
Manufactured 

172,006,501 

227,644,329 

380,338,011 


Manufactures for 
Further "Use in 
Manufacturing 

287,785,652 

319,275,488 

552,058,236 


Manufactures 
in Complete 
Form 

361,422,180 

449,318,214 

394,671,791 


Miscellaneous 

Manufactured 

Articles 

13,454,769 

16,874,145 

19,026,334 


Compare the value and nature of our ex¬ 
ports and imports. How is the result en¬ 


couraging in comparison with statistics of 
other countries given in the table below ? 


Our Foreign Trade in 1910 
(Census Year) 


Rank Countries 


Value 



Exports 

$576,613,974 

1 . 

Great Britain 

Imports 

261,289,106 


and Ireland 

. Total 

837,903,080 



Exports 

287,495,814 

2. 

Germany 

Imports 

163,242,560 



. Total 

450,738,374 



' Exports 

269,806,013 

3. 

Canada 

Imports 

100,863,418 



Total 

270,669,431 



Exports 

135,271,648 

4. 

France 

Imports 

115,414,784 



. Total 

250,686,432 



' Exports 

60,709,062 

5. 

Cuba 

Imports 

110,309,468 



. Total 

171,018,530 



' Exports 

96,103,376 

6. 

Netherlands 

Imports 

32,926,492 



. Total 

129,029,868 



' Exports 

27,240,146 

7. 

Brazil 

Imports 

100,867,184 



. Total 

128,107,330 



Exports 

61,281,715 

8. 

Mexico 

Imports 

57,450,111 



Total 

118,731,826 



Exports 

36,721,409 

9. 

Japan 

Imports 

78,527,496 



Total 

115,248,905 



Exports 

60,580,766 

10. 

Italy 

Imports 

47,334,809 



. Total 

107,915,575 


Our Foreign Trade in 1918 
(Recent War Year) 


Rank Countries Value 


1. 

Great Britain 

\ Exports 

$1,994,894,260 


and Ireland 

Imports 

190,082,456 



i Total 

2,184,976,716 



[ Exports 

778,509,792 

2. 

Canada 

Imports 

434,254,567 



1 Total 

1,212,764,359 



' Exports 

890,481,513 

3. 

France 

Imports 

75,638,078 



. Total 

966,119,591 



' Exports 

267,730,637 

4. 

Japan 

Imports 

284,945,439 



. Total 

552,676,076 



' Exports 

477,530,702 

6. 

Italy 

Imports 

30,014,349 


. 

. Total 

507,544,051 



' Exports 

235,682,045 

6. 

Cuba 

Imports 

264,024,006 



. Total 

499,706,051 



Exports 

109,444,001 

7. 

Argentina 

Imports 

195,633,348 



Total 

305,077,349 



Exports 

106,893,653 

8. 

Mexico 

Imports 

140,801,097 



Total 

247,694,750 



Exports 

63,529,124 

9. 

Chile 

Imports 

141,075,704 



Total 

204,604,828 



Exports 

66,270,046 

10. 

Brazil < 

Imports 

113,511,954 



Total 

179,782,000 













COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


447 


3. Principal 
transportation 
routes on the 
oceans 


What important changes indicated in the 
preceding table have taken place in our 
foreign trade since 1910 ? 

Figure 564 shows the ocean routes that 
vessels engaged in the commerce between 
nations generally take be¬ 
tween the United States and 
Europe. To w T hat European 
countries do they extend ? 
Trace other routes across the Atlantic, 
and tell what countries they connect. 
Name some goods that are carried in each 
case, if you can. Do the same for the 
Pacific. 

Our many exports and imports show how depend¬ 
ent we are upon other countries. We are wonderfully 
favored in the abundance of our re¬ 
sources. Yet it would be of no use 
to produce so many things if foreign 
countries did not buy some of them. 
Again, although we have so many 
products, there are still many things that we need 
from other lands. It is true that we probably could 

United States 


4. The depend¬ 
ence of nations 
upon one an¬ 
other 


Reasons why 
we promise 
great progress 
in the future 

1 and 2. Our 
youthfulness 
and abundance 
of room 



In 1918 our wealth was estimated at 

$220,000,000,000. 

The figures and diagrams that you have 
studied show that several European coun¬ 
tries compete actively with the 
United States in the world's 
trade. Give examples. 

So far as the future is con¬ 
cerned, however, several im¬ 
portant facts are in our favor. 

In the first place, we are still 
in our youth as a people, 
while some of the leading nations of Europe 
have, perhaps, already reached the height 
of their power. In the second place, the 
territory of most of those countries is 
densely settled, as shown in Figure 534. 
Note the number of inhabitants per square 
mile in Belgium, Germany, and France. 
When we contrast with these figures our 
average of only thirty persons per square 
mile, our possible future growth seems 

almost without 
limit. Im¬ 
mense tracts of 
land, which in 
Europe would 
be carefully 
tilled, are in our 
country not 
even cleared for 


depend upon ourselves for all that we want bet¬ 
ter than any other nation. The English, for in¬ 
stance, would starve within a few weeks, if no 
food were imported there. Yet note the things 
that we import. How do they compare, in value, 
with our exports? Thus, in spite of our great 
resources, we are really very dependent upon other 
countries. 

Owing to our trade relations with the United 
Kingdom, what hardships would probably be brought 
upon the British if they entered upon a war with us ? 
How might the Italians suffer if they were at war 
with us? How might the French suffer? On the 
other hand, what hardships would come to us in 
each case ? 

All the preceding facts prepare us for 
Wealth of Figure 563, which shows that 
nations the United States is the 

wealthiest nation on the face of the earth. 


pasture. In no large section of the United 
States do we even approach the careful til¬ 
lage of the soil by hand that is common in 
Belgium and some other European countries. 

The varied climate and surface features 
of our vast country are also favorable to 
us; for they guarantee a va- 3 0ur variety 
riety of products. Almost all of climate and 
farm products can be easily surface feature3 
raised, and our wonderful mineral resources 
are, so far as we know, not equaled on any 
continent. It will therefore be seen that 
our natural resources, which have been so 
important in giving us our present position, 
promise equally well for the future. 

The character of our people is another 
thing that must be considered in reckoning 



































































































































































COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 


449 


our future promise. The condition of 
China shows that resources alone will not 
make an energetic people and 

ter Of our people a great nation; for, m spite of 
the fact that they have been 
greatly favored in their resources, they have 
made very little use of them. Indeed, 
their customs have even prevented prog¬ 
ress (p. 387). 

Our people have consisted, in large part, 
of persons who had energy and ambition 
enough to migrate to a new land in the 


hope of bettering their condition. In their 
new home the opportunities have been so 
great that they have been encouraged to 
work and to improve themselves. The 
conditions in the desert have produced the 
nomad ; the ease of life in the tropical forest 
the shiftless savage; but the conditions 
in the United States have produced a race 
noted for its energy and enterprise. This 
race has been possible, however, largely be¬ 
cause it comes from a mixture of peoples 
already gifted. 


The statement of reasons for expecting 
great future progress in the United States 
would not be complete, if left 5 and 6 0ur 
here. There are two other care for edu- 
factors of great importance; cation, and our 
namely, education and govern- g° vernment 
ment. Where people are ignorant, and 
where rulers hamper them by bad laws 
and heavy taxes, there is little chance of 
progress. It is those European coun¬ 
tries in which there are the best oppor¬ 
tunities for education, and the greatest 
freedom, that have made the greatest 
progress. 

No nation in the world pays more atten¬ 
tion to education or guarantees its people a 
more active part in their government than 
the United States. These facts, even as 

fullv as the resources and the character of 
*/ 

the people, help to explain our astonishing 
progress in the past, and to give reason for 
hope in the future. 


































APPENDIX 


TABLES OF _AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 

Note. — The figures, 1910, 1916, etc., refer to the year in which the Census was taken or the estimate was made. 
Most of the recent figures are obtained from the United States Census Reports or from “The Statesman’s Year 
Book,” 1919. Estimates are indicated by an asterisk. 


SIZE OF EARTHj 

Length of Earth s Diameter at the Equator (miles).7,926 [ The Earth’s Surface (square miles).196 940 000 

Length of Equator (miles).24,902 | Total Area of Ocean (square miles).14L486i000 


CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES, COLONIES. ETC. 


Area in 

Square Miles Population 

North America . 8 , 500,000 140 , 000,000 


Alaska, 1910.590,884 

Antigua, 1911.108 

Bahama Islands, 1917. 4,404 

Bermuda Islands, 1916.20 


64,356 

35,073 

58,484 

20,215 


Area in 

„ Square Miles 

British Isles, 1919.121,753 

Bulgaria (before recent changes), 1917. . .47,750 

Corsica, 1906.3,367 

Crete, 1900.3,365 

Czechoslovakia, 1919.60,000* 


Population 

46,241,000 

5,517,700 

291,160 

310,185 

13,500,000* 


British Honduras, 1916.8,598 

Canada, 1917.3,729,665 

Costa Rica, 1916.23,000 

Cuba, 1916.44,000 

Greenland, 1911.46,740 


40,458* 

8,361,000 

441,342* 

2,627,536 

13,459 


Danzig, 1919.729 

Denmark, 1916.15,582 

England, 1911.50,784 

England and Wales, 1911.58,324 

Faroe Islands, 1916.540 


250,000* 

2,940,979 

34,045,290 

36,070,492 

19,617 


Guatemala, 1914.48,290 

Haiti (Island), 1912.10,204 

Honduras, 1914.44,275 

Jamaica, 1917.4,200 

Mexico, 1912.767,198 


2,003,579* 

2,500,000* 

562,000* 

900,485* 

15,501,684 


Finland, 1919.145,724 

France, 1919.213,500* 

Germany, 1919.170,826* 

Great Britain, 1911.121,633 

Greece (before recent changes), 1914 . . . .41,933 


3,500,000* 

42,710,000* 

53,564,232* 

41,126,040 

4,821,300 


Newfoundland, 1916.42,734 

Labrador, 1916.120,000 

Nicaragua, 1914.49,200 

Panama, Republic of, 1916.32,380 

Virgin Islands, 1918.132 


252,836 

4,076 

703,540* 

450,000 

23,000* 


Hebrides Islands, 1918.3,000* 

Hungary, 1919.88,000* 

Iceland, 1911 .39,756 

Ireland, 1911.32,360 

Italy, 1915.110,659 


100,000* 

15,000,000* 

85,183 

4,390,219 

36,120,118 


Salvador, 1916 


13,176 1,271,336* 


United States, see p. 453 


South America . 7 , 570,000 

Argentina, 1917.1,153,119 

Bolivia, 1914.514,155 

Brazil, 1915.3,218,991 

Chile, 1917.289,829 


50 , 000,000 

8,574,000 

2,889,970 

26,542,402 

3,870,000 


Colombia, 1912.440,846 

Ecuador, 1915.116,000 

Falkland Islands, 1916.5,500 

Guiana, British, 1916.89,480 

Guiana, Dutch, 1917.46,060 

Guiana, French, 1911.32,000 

Paraguay, 1917.165,000 

Peru, 1908.722,461 

South Georgia Islands.1,000 


Tobago, 1911 .114 1 

Trinidad Island, 1911 .1,754 / 

Uruguay, 1916.72,153 

Venezuela, 1916...398,554 


Europe 


3 , 870,000 


Albania, 1918. 

Andorra, 1918. 

Austria, 1919. 

Balearic Isles, 1916.. 

Belgium, 1919. 

British Empire, 1919 


. . . . 10,900 

.191 

. . . 25,000* 

.1,935 

11,757 

14,072,000 


5,071,101 

2 , 000,000 

3,220 

313,859 

91,622 

49,009 

1,050,000 

4,500,000 

uninhabited 


333,552 

1,378,808 

2,323,527 

464 , 680,000 

825,000 

5,231 

8 , 000 , 000 * 

332,756 

7.542,968 

463,534,000 


Jugoslavia, 1919.158,000* 

Liechtenstein, 1912.65 

Lithuania, 1919.100,000* 

Luxemburg, 1910.998 

Malta, 1911.92 


12 , 000 , 000 * 

10,716 

3,000,000* 

259,891 

228,534 


Monaco, 1913.8 

Netherlands, 1916.12,582 

Norway, 1910. 124,642 

Orkney Islands, 1911.376 

Poland, 1919. 100,000* 


22,956 

6,583,277 

2,391,782 

25,897 

20,000,000* 


Portugal, 1911.35,490 

Rumania, 1919.103,489* 

Russia in Europe, 1919 .1,640,400* 

San Marino, 1916.38 

Sardinia, 1915.9,299 


5,957,985 

14,434,919* 

122,082,700* 

11,648 

880,863 


Scotland, 1911 .30,405 

Shetland Islands, 1910.551 

Sicily, 1915.9,935 

Spain, 1916 . 194,783 

Sweden, 1916.173,035 


4,760,904 

27,911 

3,793,465 

20,747,893 

5,757,566 


Switzerland, 1915.15,976 

Turkey (before recent changes), 1918. . . .10,882 

Ukraine, 1919.300,000* 

Wales, 1911.7,450 


3,880,500 

1,891,000 

30,000,000* 

2,025,202 


Asia with East Indies . 17 , 206,000 

Aden, 1911.75 

Afghanistan, 1918.245,000 

Arabia (peninsula), 1918.1,200,000 

Bhutan, 1918.20,000* 


872 , 522,000 

46,165 

6,380,500 

4,825,000 

250,000* 


451 




































































































452 


AREA , POPULATION , ETC. 


Area in 
Square Miles 


Bokhara, 1918 .83,000 

Burma, 1911.230,839 

Ceylon, 1916.25,332 

China (proper), 1911.1,532,420 

Republic of China, 1911.3,912,560 


Population 

1,250,000* 

12,115,217 

4,547,200 

302,110,000 

320,650,000 


Area in 
Square Miles 


Liberia, 1918.40,000 

Madagascar, 1918.228,000 

Madeira Islands, 1911.314 

Mauritius (Br.), 1911.720 

Morocco, 1918.231,500* 


Population 

1,800,000* 

3,512,690 

169,777 

377,083 

6 , 000 , 000 * 


(Chinese) Sin-Kiang, 1911 .. . .550,340 

Chosen, 1915. 84,000* 

Cyprus, 1916.3,584 

Formosa, 1916.13,944 

French India, 1918.196 

French Indo-China, 1914.256,000 

Hejas, 1918.96,500* 

India, 1911.1,802,629 

Japan (principal islands), 1919.178,089 

Khiva, 1918.24,000 

Manchuria, 1909.363,610 

Mongolia, 1918.1,367,600* 

Nepal, 1918.54,000 

Oman, 1918.82,000 

Palestine, 1905.10,000* 

Persia, 1918.628,000* 

Portuguese Indies, 1910.8,972 

Russia in Asia, 1915.6,294,119 

Siam, 1915.195,000 

Siberia, 1915.4,831,882 

Straits Settlements, 1917.1,472 

Tibet, 1918.463,200* 

Turkey in Asia (before recent changes), 

1919.166,000* 

Yemen, 1919.73,800* 

Africa.11,660,000 

Abyssinia, 1918.350,000 

Algeria (Fr.), 1917.184,474* 

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1917.1,014,400* 

Angola, 1918.484,800 

Belgian Congo, 1918.909,650 

British Somaliland, 1918.68,000* 

Canary Islands (Sp.), 1916.2,807 

Cape of Good Hope, 1911.,473,075 

Cape Verde Islands (Port.), 1912.1,480 

Egypt, 1917.350,000 

Eritrea (Italy), 1918.45,800 

French Congo, 1918.669,280 

French Somaliland, 1918.5,790 

Gambia (Br.), 1911.4,500 

Gold Coast and Protectorate, 1918.80,000* 

Italian Somaliland, 1918.139,430 


1,200,000 

16,278,389* 

298,775 

3,710,848 

268,499 

16,990,229 

300,000* 

315,156,396 

56,248,404 

646,000 

16,000,000* 

1,800,000* 

5,000,000* 

500,000* 

700,000* 

9,500,000 

1,001,153 

29,141,500 

8,819,686 

10,377,900 

812,793* 

2 , 000 , 000 * 

7,157,000* 

750,000* 

142 , 750,000 

8,000,000 

5,563,828 

3,400,000* 

4,119,000* 

15,500,000 

300,000* 

497,995* 

5,973,394 

149,793 

12,569,000 

450,000* 

9,000,000* 

208,000* 

138,000* 

1,503,386* 

450,000* 


Natal, 1911. 

Nigeria, Northern, 1918 1 

Nigeria, Southern, 1918 J 

Orange Free State, 1911.. 

Portuguese Africa, 1918. 

. . . .35,371 

. .. 336,000 

.. . . 50,392 
. .927,292 

1,194,043 

17,500,000 

528,174 

7,734,701 

Reunion Island (Fr.), 1912. 

St. Helena (Br.), 1911. 

Sierra Leone and Protectorate (Br.), 

1911. 

Spanish Africa, 1918. 

Togo, 1918. 

.970 

.47 

. . .31,000* 

. . .85,814 
. . .33,700 

173,822 

3,520 

1,403,132 

235,844 

1,032,346 

Tripoli, 1911. 

Tunis (Fr.), 1910. 

Uganda Protectorate, 1910. 

Zanzibar (Br.), 1910. 

.. 406,000* 

.. . 45,779 
. .223,500 
. . .1,020 

528,000* 

1,923,217 

3,500,000 

200,000 

Australia, Commonwealth of . 

.2,975,000 

4,896,000 

New South Wales, 1917. 

Northern Territory, 1917. 

Queensland, 1917. 

South Australia, 1917. 

Tasmania, 1917. 

. .309,460 
.. 523,620 
.. 670,500 
. . 380,070 
. . .26,215 

1,868,400 

5,043 

681,302 

429,890 

197,337 

Victoria, 1917. 

Western Australia, 1917. 

. .. 87,884 
..975,920 

1,402,650 

308,530 


East Indies and larger islands of the 


Pacific.. . . 

.1,200,000 

47,000,000 

Borneo, 1911. 

.243,843 

1,580,642* 

Celebes, 1912. 

.72,070 

2,677,691* 

Fiji Islands, 1911. 

.7,083 

139,541 

Hawaiian Islands, 1917. 

.6,449 

250,627* 

Java and Madura, 1912. 

.50,554 

36,035,435 

Molucca Islands, 1912. 

.195,653 

407,906 

New Caledonia, 1911. 

.7,650 

55,000 

New Zealand, 1916. 

. 103,581 

1,099,449* 

Papua, 1917. 

.90,540 

201,374* 

Philippine Islands, 1917. 

.114,400 

9,000,000* 

Samoan Islands (U. S.). 

1,079 

7,550 

Solomon Islands, 1918. 

.15,200 

750,000 

Sumatra, 1912. 

.159,709 

4,791,990* 


Total Area of Continents. 56 , 900,000 

Total Population. 1 , 700 , 000,000 


STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES 



Area in 

Population Census Esti- 


Square Miles 

1910 

mate 1916 

Alabama. 

.51,998 

2,138,093 

2,332,608 

Alaska. 

.590,884 

64,356 

64,834 

Arizona. 


204,354 

255,544 

Arkansas. 

.53,335 

1,574,449 

1,739,723 

California.. 


2,377,549 

2,938,654 

Colorado. 

.103,948 

799,024 

962,060 

Connecticut. 

.4,965 

1,114,756 

1,244,479 

Delaware. 

.2,370 

202,322 

213,380 

District of Columbia 

.70 

331,069 

363,980 

Florida. 

.58,666 

752,691 

893,493 

Georgia. 

.59,265 

2,609,121 

2,856,065 

Guam. 

.210 

11,973 

12,866 

Hawaiian Islands. 

.6,449 

191,909 

215,741 

Idaho. 

.84,313 

325,594 

428,586 

Illinois. 

.56,665 

5,638,591 

6,152,257 

Indiana. 

.36,354 

2,700,876 

2,816,817 

Iowa. 


2,224,771 

2,220,321 

Kansas. 

.82,158 

1,690,949 

1,829,545 

Kentucky. 


2,289,905 

2,379,639 

Louisiana. 

.48,506 

1,656,388 

1,829,130 



Area in 

Population 

Census Esti- 


Square Miles 

1910 

mate 1916 

Maine. 

.33,040 

742,371 

772,489 

Maryland. 

.12,327 

1,295,346 

1,362,807 

Massachusetts. 

.8,266 

3,366,416 

3,719,156 

Michigan. 

.57,980 

2,810,173 

3,054,854 

Minnesota. 

.84,682 

2,075,708 

2,279,603 

Mississippi. 

.46,865 

1,797,114 

1,951,764 

Missouri. 

.69,420 

3,293,335 

3,410,692 

Montana. 

.146,572 

376,053 

459,494 

Nebraska. 

.77,520 

1,192,214 

1,271,375 

Nevada. 

.110,690 

81,875 

106,764 

New Hampshire. 

.9,341 

430,572 

442,506 

New Jersey. 

.8,224 

2,537,167 

2,948,017 

New Mexico. 

.122,634 

327,301 

410,283 

New York. 

.49,204 

9,113,614 

10,273,375 

North Carolina. 

.52,426 

2,206,287 

2,402,738 

North Dakota. 

.70,837 

557,056 

739,201 

Ohio. 

.41,040 

4,767,121 

5,150,356 

Oklahoma. 

.70,057 

1,657,155 

2,202,081 

Oregon. 

.99,699 

672,765 

835,741 

Panama Canal Zone . . 

.474 


31,048 

Pennsylvania. 

.45,126 

7,665,111 

8,522,017 




































































































































APPENDIX 


453 


Philippine Islands. 

Porto Rico. 

Rhode Island. 

Samoan Islands (U. S.) 

South Carolina. 

South Dakota. 

Tennessee. 

Texas. 

Utah. 

Vermont. 


Area in 
Square Miles 
... 127,853 

.3,606 

.1,248 

Q9 

'. . . .30,989 
.77,615 


Population 

1910 

8,276,802 

1,118,012 

542,610 

6,780 

1,515,400 

583,888 


.42,022 2,184,789 

265,896 3,896,542 

.84,990 373,351 

. . 9,564 355,956 


Census Esti¬ 
mate 1916 
8,834,187 
1,216,083 
614,315 
9,100 
1,625,475 
698,509 

2,288,004 

4,429,566 

434,083 

363,699 


Area in 
Square Miles 


Virginia.42,627 

W ashington.69,127 

West Virginia.24,170 

Wisconsin.56,066 

Wyoming.97,914 


Population 

1910 

2,061,612 

1,141,990 

1,221,119 

2,333,860 

145,965 


Census Esti¬ 
mate 1916 
2,192,019 
1,534,221 
1,386,038 
2,500,350 
179,559 


United States, total. . . 3 , 624,122 93 , 402,151 112 , 444,620 

United States (without 
Alaska, Philippine Is¬ 
lands, etc.). 3 , 026,789 91 , 972,266 102 , 017,312 


1. 

London, Greater, England 

TWENTY-FIVE 

..1914. 

largest 

Population 

.7,419,704 


London, England. 

..1914. 

.4,518,021 

2. 

New York, U. S. 

..1910. 

.5,602,841 

3. 

Paris, France. 

..1911. 

.2,888,110 

4. 

Chicago, U. S. 

..1916. 

.2,457,722 

5. 

Petrograd, Russia. 

..1915. 

.2,318,645 

6 . 

Tokyo,Japan. 

..1917. 

.2,244,796 

7 . 

Vienna, Austria. 

..1911. 

.2,149,800 

8. 

Moscow, Russia. 

.1915. 

.1,817,100 

9. 

Berlin, Germany. 

..1916. 

.1,779,107 

10. 

Philadelphia, U. S. 

..1916. 

.1,709,518 

11. 

Buenos Aires, Argentina. . . . 

..1916. 

.1,596,927 

12. 

Osaka, Japan. 

..1917. 

.1,460,218 


CITIES IN THE WORLD 


13. 

Hankau, China. 

...1916. 

Population 
.1,321,280* 

14. 

Calcutta, India. 

. . .1911. 

.1,222,313 

15. 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 

...1911. 

.1,128,637 

16. 

Glasgow, Scotland. 

...1915. 

.1,072,793 

17. 

Constantinople, Turkey. . . 

...1918. 

.1,000,000 

18. 

Shanghai, China. 

...1916. 

.1,000,000* 

19. 

Siangtan, China. 

...1908. 

.1,000,000* 

20. 

Sianganfu, China. 

.1908. 

.1,000,000* 

21. 

Bombay, India. 

.. .1911. 

. 979,445 

22. 

Hamburg, Germany. 

. 1910. 

. 931,035 

23. 

Warsaw, Poland . 

. 1913. 

. 909,491 

24. 

Canton, China. 

...1916. 

. 900,000* 

25. 

Budapest, Hungary. 

...1910. 

. 880,371 


TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES 


Population Census Esti- 
1910 mate 1916 


1. 

New York, N. Y. 


5,602,841 

2. 

Chicago, Ill. 

.2,185,283 

2,457,722 

3. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

.1,549,008 

1,709,518 

4. 

St. Louis, Mo. 


757,309 

5. 

Boston, Mass. 


756,476 

6. 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

. 560,663 

674,073 

7. 

Baltimore, Md. 

. 558,485 

589,621 

8. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

. 533,905 

579,090 

9. 

Detroit, Mich. 

. 465,766 

571,784 

10. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

. 423,715 

468,558 

11. 

San Francisco, Cal. 

. 416,912 

463,516 

12. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

. 373,857 

436,525 

13. 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

. 364,463 

410,476 




Population 

Census Esti- 



1910 

mate 1916 

14. 

Newark, N. J. 

. 347,469 

408,894 

15. 

New Orleans, La. 

. 339,075 

371,747 

16. 

Washington, D. C. 

. 331,069 

363,980 

17. 

Los Angeles, Cal. 

. 319,198 

503,812 

18. 

Minneapolis, Minn. 

. 301,408 

363,454 

19. 

Jersey City, N. J. 

. 267,779 

306,345 

20. 

Kansas City, Mo. 

. 248,381 

297.847 

21. 

Seattle, Wash. 

. 237,194 

348,639 

22. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

. 233,650 

271,708 

23. 

Providence, R. I. 

. 224,326 

254,960 

24. 

Louisville, Kv. 

. 223,928 

238,910 

25. 

Rochester, N. Y. 

. 218,149 

256,417 


GROWTH OF THE FIFTEEN LARGEST CITIES OF THE COUNTRY 


City 1800 

1. New York, N. Y.. .60,489 (1) 

2. Chicago, Ill. . 

3. Philadelphia, Pa... .41,220 (2) 

4. St. Louis, Mo.10,049 (1820) 

5. Boston, Mass.24,937 (4) 

6. Cleveland, Ohio.. . 606 (1820) 

7. Baltimore, Md.26,514 (.3) 

8. Pittsburgh, Pa.1,565 (5) 

9. Detroit, Mich.1,422 (1820) 

10. Buffalo, N. Y.2,095 (1820) 

11. San Francisco, Cal.. - 

12. Milwaukee, Wis. —-— 

13. Cincinnati, Ohio. . . .2,540 (1810) 

14. Newark, N. J.8,008 (1810) 

15. New Orleans, La.. .17,242 (1810) 


1830 

1890 

197,112 (1) 

2,507,414 (1) 

4,470 (1840) 

1,099,850 (2) 

80,462 (3) 

1,046,964 (3) 

14,125 (7) 

451,770 (4) 

61,392 (4) 

448,477 (5) 

1,076 (12) 

261,353 (9) 

80,620 (2) 

434,439 (6) 

12,568 (8) 

238,617 (12) 

2,222 (11) 

205,876 (13) 

8,668 (10) 

255,664 (10) 


298,997 (7) 

1,172 (1840) 

204,468 (14) 

24,831 (6) 

296,908 (8) 

10,953 (9) 

181,830 (15) 

29,737 (5) 

242,039 (11) 


1900 


1910 

3,437,202 

(1) 

4,766,883 

1,698,575 

(2) 

2,185,283 

1,293,697 

(3) 

1,549,008 

575,238 

(4) 

687,029 

560,892 

(5) 

670,585 

381,768 

(7) 

560,663 

508,957 

(6) 

558,485 

321,616 

CD 

533,905 

285,704 

(13) 

465,766 

352,387 

(8) 

423,715 

342,782 

(9) 

416,912 

285,315 

(14) 

373,857 

325,902 

(10) 

364,463 

246,070 

(15) 

347,469 

287,104 

(12) 

339,075 


1916 (Census 
Estimate) 
5,602,841 
2,457,722 
1,709,518 
757,309 

756.476 
674,073 
589,621 
579,090 
571,784 
468,558 
463,516 
436,525 

410.476 
408,894 
371,747 


CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS IN 1910; AND A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY 

MENTIONED IN THE BOOK 


Akron, Ohio. 

Albany, N. Y. 

Albuquerque, N. M 

Allentown, Pa. 

Altoona, Pa. 


Population 

1910 

... 69,067 
. . . 100,253 

_11,020 

. . . .51,913 
.... 52,127 


Census Esti¬ 
mate 1916 
85,625 
104,199 
14,025 
63,505 
58,659 


Amsterdam, N. Y, 
Anaconda, Mont. 
Annapolis, Md. . 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 
Asheville, N. C... 


Population 

1910 

.31,267 

.10,134 

.8,609 

.14,817 

.18,762 


Census'Esti¬ 
mate 1916 
37,103 
10,562 
8,760 
15,010 
20,823 























































































































454 


AREA, POPULATION , ETC. 


Ashland, Wis. 

Astoria, Ore. 

Atchison, Kan.. . . 

Atlanta, Ga. 

Atlantic City, N. J 


Population Census Esli- 
1910 mate 1916 

_11,594 . 

.9,599 10,363 

_16,429 16,735 

. . . 154,839 190,558 

_46,150 57,660 


Population Census Esti- 



1910 

mate 1916 

Dover, Del.:. 

.3,720 


Dover, N. H. 

.13,247 

13,272 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

.38,494 

39,873 

Duluth, Minn. 

.78,466 

94,495 

Durham, N. C. 

.18,241 

25,061 


Auburn, Me.15,064 

Auburn, N. Y.34,668 

Augusta, Ga.41,040 

Augusta, Me.13,211 

Aurora, Ill.29,807 


16,393 

37,385 

50,245 

14,170 

34,204 


Easton, Pa.28,523 

East Orange, in. o . 34,371 

Eastport, Me.4,961 

East St. Louis, Ll.58,547 

Elgin, Ill.25,976 


30,530 

42,458 


74,708 

28,203 


Austin, Tex.. . 
Baltimore, Md, 
Bangor, Me.. . 

Barre, Vt. 

Bath, Me. 


.29,860 

558,485 

.24,803 

.10,734 

..9,396 


34,814 

589,621 

26,659 

12,169 


Elizabeth, N. J.73,409 

Elmira, N. Y.37,176 

El Paso, Tex.39,279 

Erie, Pa.66,525 

Evanston, Ill.24,978 


86,690 

38,120 

63,705 

75,195 

28,591 


Baton Rouge, La.14,897 

Battle Creek, Mich.25,267 

Bay City, Mich.45,166 

Bayonne, N. J.. . ..55,545 

Bellingham, Wash.24,296 


17,176 

29,480 

47,912 

69,893 

32,985 


Evansville, Ind.69,647 

Everett, Mass.33,484 

Fairbanks, Alaska.3,000 

Fall River, Mass.119,295 

Fargo, N. D.14,331 


76,078 

39,233 

2,500 

128,366 

17,389 


Berkeley, Cal.40,434 

Biddeford, Me.17,079 

Billings, Mont.10,031 

Binghamton, N. Y.48,443 

Birmingham, Ala.132,685 


57,653 

17,665 

14,422 

53,973 

181,762 


Findlay, Ohio.14,858 

Fitchburg, Mass.37,826 

Flint, Mich.38,550 

Fort Wayne, Ind.63,933 

Fort Worth, Tex.73,312 


41,781 

54,772 

76,183 

104,562 


Bisbee, Ariz.. . 

Bismarck, N. D. 
Bloomington, III 
Bois6, Idaho. . .. 
Boston, Mass.. . 


.9,019 . 

..5,443 . 

.25,768 27,258 

17,358 33,846 

670,585 756,476 


Frankfort, Ky.. . 

Fresno, Cal. 

Galveston, Tex... 
Gloucester, Mass. 
Goldfield, Nev.. . 


10,465 11,080 

24,892 34,958 

36,981 41,863 

24,398 . 

.4,838 . 


Bradford, Pa.. . . 
Bridgeport, Conn, 
Brockton, Mass.. 
Brookline, Mass.. 
Brunswick, Ga.. . 


.14,544 . 

102,054 121,579 

. 56,878 67,449 

.27,792 32,730 

.10,182 10,872 


Grand Rapids, Mich, 

Greeley, Colo. 

Green Bay, Wis. 

Greenville, S. C. 

Guthrie, Ok. 


112,571 128,291 

..8,179 11,420 

.25,236 29,353 

.15,741 18,181 

.11,654 12,035 


Buffalo, N. Y.423,715 

Burlington, Vt.. . .20,463 

Butte, Mont.39,165 

Cambridge, Mass.104,839 

Camden, N. J.94,538 


468,558 

21,617 

43,425 

112,981 

106,233 


Hamilton, Ohio.35,279 

Harrisburg, Pa.64,186 

Hartford, Conn.98,915 

Haverhill, Mass.44,115 

Hazelton, Pa.25,452 


40,496 

72,015 

110,900 

48,477 

28,491 


Canton, Ohio.50,217 

Carson City, Nev.2,466 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa.32,811 

Champaign, Ill.12,421 

Charleston, S. C.58,833 


60,852 


37,308 

14,508 

60,734 


Helena, Mont.12,515 

High Point, N. C.9,525 

Hilo, Hawaiian Islands.6,745 

Hoboken, N. J.70,324 

Holyoke, Mass.57,730 


13,612 

12,896 


77,214 

65,286 


Charleston, W.Va.22,996 

Charlotte, N. C.34,014 

Chattanooga, Tenn.44,604 

Chelsea, Mass.32,452 

Chester, Pa.38,537 


29,941 

39,823 

60,075 

46,192 

41,396 


Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.52,183 

Hot Springs, Ark.14,434 

Houghton, Mich.5,113 

Houston, Tex.78,800 

Huntington, W. Va.31,161 


71,950 

17,238 


112,307 

45,629 


Cheyenne, Wyo.. 

Chicago, Ill. 

Chicopee, Mass.. 
Cincinnati, Ohio 
Clarksville, Tenn, 


, . 11,320 
2,185,283 
. . .25,401 
.364,463 
. . . .8,548 


2,457,722 

29,319 

410,476 


Huntsville, Ala.7,611 

Indianapolis, Ind.233,650 

Ishpeming, Mich.12,448 

Ithaca, N. Y. 14,802 

Jackson, Mich.31,433 


271,708 


15,848 

35,363 


Cleveland, Ohio.560,663 

Clinton, Iowa.25,577 

Colorado Springs, Colo.29,078 

Columbia, S. C.26,319 

Columbus, Ga.20,554 


674,073 

27,386 

32,971 

34,611 

25,950 


Jackson, Miss. 

Jacksonville, Fla. . 
Jamestown, N. Y.. 
Jefferson City, Mo 
Jersey City, N. J.. . 


.21,262 

.57,699 

.31,297 

11,850 

267,779 


29,737 

76,101 

36,580 

13,484 

306,345 


Columbus, Ohio.181,548 

Concord, N. H.21,497 

Council Bluffs, Iowa.29,292 

Covington, Ky.53,270 

Cripple Creek, Colo.6,206 


214,878 

22,669 

31,484 

57,144 


Johnstown, Pa.55,482 

Joliet, Ill.34,670 

Joplin, Mo. ... .32,073 

Juneau, Alaska..1,644 

Kalamazoo, Mich.39,437 


68,529 

38,010 

33,216 

4,000 

48,886 


Dallas, Tex.92,104 

Danville, Ill.27,871 

Danville, Va.19,020 

Davenport, Iowa.. . .43,028 

Dayton, Ohio.116,577 


124,527 

32,261 

20,021 

48,811 

127,224 


Kansas City, Kan.82,331 

Kansas City, Mo.248,381 

Key West, Fla.19,945 

Kingston, N. Y.25,908 

Knoxville, Tenn.36,346 


99,437 

297,847 

21,724 

26,771 

38,676 


Decatur, Ill.31,140 

Denver, Colo.213,381 

Des Moines, Iowa.86,368 

Detroit, Mich.465,766 

Douglas, Ariz.6,437 


39,631 

260,800 

101,598 

571,784 


La Crosse, Wis.30,417 

Lancaster, Pa.47,227 

Lansing, Mich.31,229 

Laramie, Wyo.8,237 

Lawrence, Mass.85,892 


31,677 

50,853 

40,498 

8,256 

100,560 












































































































































































APPENDIX 


455 


Leadville, Colo. 

Population Census Esti- 
1910 mate 1916 

Lewiston, Idaho. 


Lewiston, Me. 

Lexington, Ky. 

Lima, Ohio. 



Population Census Esti- 
1910 mate 1916 

Plymouth, Mass.12,141 13,743 

Pomona, Cal.10,207 13,150 

Ponce, Porto Rico.35,027 63,444 

Portland, Me.58,571 63,867 

Portland, Ore.207,214 295,463 


Lincoln, Neb.... 
Little Rock, Ark, 
Lockport, N. Y.. 
Lorain, Ohio. . . 

, Los Angeles, Cal, 


.43,973 46,515 

.45,941 57,343 

.17,970 19,879 

. 28,833 36,964 

319,198 503,812 


Portsmouth, N. H.. 
Portsmouth, Va.. . . 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y 

Prescott, Ariz. 

Providence, R. I_ 


.11,269 11,666 

.33,190 39,651 

.27,936 30,390 

.5,092 . 

224,326 254,960 


Louisville, Ky.223,928 

Lowell, Mass.106,294 

Lynchburg, Va.29,494 

Lynn, Mass.89,336 

Macon, Ga.40,665 


238,910 

113,245 

32,940 

102,425 

45,757 


Provincetown, Mass.4,369 

Pueblo, Colo. .44,395 

Quincy, Ill.36,587 

Quincy, Mass.32,642 

Racine, Wis.38,002 


54,462 

36,798 

38,120 

46,486 


Madison, Wis.25,531 

Malden, Mass.44,404 

Manchester, N. H.70,063 

Manila, Philippines. 234,409 

Marquette, Mich.11,503 


30,699 
51,155 
7 8,283 
266,943 
12,409 


Raleigh, N. C. 
Reading, Pa. . 
Redlands, Cal. 
Richmond, Va 
Riverside, Cal. 


.19,218 

.96,071 

10,449 

127,628 

15,212 


20,127 

109,381 

14,000 

156,687 

19,763 


McKeesport, Pa.42,694 

Memphis, Tenn.131,105 

Meriden, Conn. 27,265 • 

Miami, Fla.5,471 

Milwaukee, Wis.373,857 


47,521 

148,995 

29,130 


436,535 


Roanoke, Va.34,874 

Rochester, N. Y.218,149 

Rockford, Ill.45,401 

Rome, Ga.12,099 

Rutland, Vt.13,546 


43,284 

256,417 

55,185 

15,120 

14,831 


Minneapolis, Minn.301,408 

Mobile, Ala.51,521 

Montgomery, Ala.... 38,136 

Montpelier, Vt.7,856 

Mount Vernon, N. Y.30,919 


363,454 

5S.221 

43,285 


37,009 


Sacramento, Cal.44,696 

Saginaw, Mich.50,510 

St. Augustine, Fla.5,494 

St. Joseph, Mo.77,403 

St. Louis, Mo.687,029 


66,895 

55,642 


85,236 

756,309 


Muskogee, Okla.25,278 

Nashua, N. H.26,005 

Nashville, Tenn. 110,364 

Natchez, Miss.11,791 

Newark, N. J.347,469 


44,218 

27,327 

117,057 


408,894 


St. Paul, Minn.214,744 

Salem, Mass.43,697 

Salem, Ore.14,094 

Salt Lake City, Utah.92,777 

San Antonio, Tex.96,614 


247,232 

48,652 

20,278 

117,399 

123,831 


Newark, Ohio. 25,404 

New Bedford, Mass. 9ii.ti.i2 

New Britain, Conn.43,916 

Newburgh, N. Y.27,805 

Newcastle, Pa.36,280 


29,635 

111,158 

53,794 

29,603 

41,133 


San Bernardino, Cal.12,779 

San Diego, Cal.39,578 

San Francisco, Cal.416,912 

San Jos6, Cal.28,946 

San Juan, Porto Rico.48,716 


16,945 

53,330 

463,516 

38,902 


New Haven, Conn. 
New Orleans, La.. . 

Newport, Ky. 

Newport, R. I. 

Newport News, Va. 


133,605 149,685 

339,075 371,747 

.30,309 31,927 

.27,149 30,108 

. 20,205 20,562 


Santa F6, N. M. 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 

Savannah, Ga. 

Schenectady, N. Y. 

Scranton, Pa. 


.. 5,072 . 

.12,615 13,919 

. 65,064 68,805 

.72,826 99,519 

129,867 146,811 


New Rochelle, N. Y.28,867 37,759 

Newton, Mass.39,806 43,715 

New York, N. Y.4,766,883 5,602,841 

Niagara Falls, N. Y.30,445 37,353 

Nome, Alaska.2,600 2,500 


Seattle, Wash.237,194 

Seward, Alaska. 

Shawnee, Okla.12,474 

Sheboygan, Wis.26,398 

Shenandoah, Pa.25,774 


348,639 

1,000 

18,138 

28,559 

29,201 


Norfolk, Va. 
Norristown, Pa. 
Oakland, Cal.. 
Ogden, Utah. . 
Oil City, Pa.. . 


.67,452 
.27,875 
150,174 
.25,580 
. 15,657 


89,611 

31,401 

198,604 

31,404 

19,297 


Shreveport, La.28,015 

Sioux City, Iowa. 47,828 

Sioux Falls, S. D.14,094 

Sitka, Alaska. 1,039 

Skagway, Alaska.872, 


35,230 

57,078 

16,499 

1,060 

800 


Oklahoma City, Okla.64,205 

Olean, N. Y.14,743 

Olympia, Wash.... .6,996 

Omaha, Neb. ... 124,096 

Orange, N. J. 29,630 


92,943 

16,624 


165,470 

33,080 


Somerville, Mass.77,236 

South Bend, Ind. 53,684 

Spartanburg, S. C.17,519 

Spokane, Wash.104,402 

Springfield, Ill. 51,678 


87,039 

68,946 

21,365 

150,323 

61,120 


Oshkosh, Wis. 
Oswego, N. Y. 
Pasadena, Cal. 
Passaic, N. J.. 
Paterson, N. J. 


.33,062 

.23,368 

.30,291 

.54,773 

125,600 


36,065 

24,101 

46,450 

71,744 

138,433 


Springfield, Mass.88,926 

Springfield, Mo. 35,201 

Springfield, Ohio.46,921 

Stamford, Conn.25,138 

Stockton, Cal.23,253 


Pawtucket, R. I. 

Pensacola, Fla. 

Peoria, Ill. 

Perth Amboy, N. J.. 
Petersburg, Va. 


51,022 

22,982 

66,950 

32,121 

24,147 


59,411 

26,272 

71,458 

41,185 

25,582 


Superior, Wis.40,384 

Syracuse, N. Y. 137,249 

Tacoma, Wash.83,743 

Tallahassee, Fla. 5,018 

Tampa, Fla.37,782 


Philadelphia, Pa. 
Phoenix, Ariz.. . 

Pierre, S. D. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Pittsfield, Mass. 


1,549,008 
11,134 
... 3,656 
533,905 
. . .32,121 


1,709,518 

18,621 


579,090 

38,629 


Taunton, Mass.34,259 

Terre Haute, Ind.58,157 

Toledo, Ohio . 168,497 

Tonopah, Nev. 3,900 

Topeka, Kan . 43,684 


105,942 

40,341 

51,550 

30,884 

35,358 

46,226 

155,624 

112,770 


53,886 

36,283 

66,083 

191,554 


48,726 








































































































































































456 


AREA , POPULATION , ETC 


Population Census Esti- 


1910 mate 1916 

Trenton, N. J.96,815 111,593 

Troy, N. Y.76,813 77,196 

Tucson, Ariz.13,193 16,750 

Utica, N.Y.74,419 85,692 

Vicksburg, Miss.20,814 22,816 

Virginia City, Nev.2,244 . 

Waco, Tex.26,425 33,385 

Walla Walla, Wash.19,363 25,136 

Waltham, Mass.27,834 23,481 

Warwick, R. 1.26,629 29,969 

Washington, D. C.331,069 363,980 

Waterbury, Conn.73,141 86,973 

Waterloo, Iowa.26,693 35,559 

Watertown, N. Y.26,730 29,894 

Waterville, Me.11,458 12,702 


FOREIGN CITIES, MOST OF WHICH 

Population 

Aachen, Germany, 1910.156,143 

Abeokuta, Niger Territory.150,000 

Aberdeen, Scotland, 1915.164,307 

Acapulco, Mexico.5,000 

Adelaide, Australia, 1916.223,718 

Alexandria, Egypt, 1917.435,000* 

Algiers, Algeria, 1906.138,240 

Amiens, France, 1911.93,207 

Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1916. 628,404 

Antwerp, Belgium, 1912. 312,884 

Archangel, Russia, 1913.43,600 

Arequipa, Peru, 1918 .40,000 

Asuncion, Paraguay. 1917.120,000 

Athens, Greece, 1907.167,479 

Auckland, New Zealand, 1916.133,712 

Bagdad, Mesopotamia, 1918.225,000* 

Bahia, Brazil, 1911.290,000 

Baku, Russia, 1913.237,000 

Ballarat, Australia, 1916.40,691* 

Bangkok, Siam, 1918.628,675 

Barcelona, Spain, 1917.621,419 

Barmen, Germany, 1910.169,201 

Basel, Switzerland, 1918.137,100 

Batavia, Java, 1905.138,551 

Belfast, Ireland, 1914.399,000 

Belgrade, Jugoslavia, 1911.90,890 

Benares, India, 1911.203,804 

Bendigo, Australia, 1916.35,790* 

Bergen, Norway, 1910.76,917 

Berlin, Germany, 1916.,.1,779,107 

Berne, Switzerland, 1918.105,000 

Bilbao, Spain, 1917.100,461* 

Birmingham, England, 1914.860,591 

Bloemfontein, South Africa, 1911.14,760 

Bogota, Colombia, 1918.121,257 

Bologna, Italy, 1915.189,770* 

Bombay, India, 1911.979,445 

Bordeaux, France, 1911.261,678 

Bradford, England, 1914.290,642 

Bremen, Germany, 1910.247,437 

Breslau, Germany, 1910.512,105 

Brest, France, 1911.90,540 

Brindisi, Italy, 1907..22,021 

Brisbane, Australia, 1916.168,393 

Bristol, England, 1914.361,573* 

Brussels, Belgium, 1912.663,647 

Bucharest, Rumania, 1914.345,628 

Budapest, Hungary, 1910.880,371 

Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1916.1,596,927 

Cadiz, Spain, 1917.66,106 

Cairo, Egypt, 1917.785,000 

Calcutta, India, 1911.1,222,313 

Calgary, Canada, 1916.56,514 

Callao, Peru, 1905.34,346 

Cambridge, England, 1914.57,159 


Population Census Esti- 


1910 mate 1916 

West Hdboken, N. J..35,403 43,139 

Wheeling, W. Va.41,641 43,377 

Wichita, Kan.52,450 70,722 

Wilkes-Barre, Pa.67,105 76,776 

Williamsport, Pa.31,860 33,809 

Wilmington, Del.87,411 94,265 

Wilmington, N. C.25,748 29,892 

Winona, Minn.18,583 . 

Woonsocket, R. I..38,125 44,360 

Worcester, Mass. 145,986 163,314 

Yakima, Wash.14,082 20,951 

Yonkers, N.Y.79,803 99,838 

York, Pa.44,750 51,656 

Youngstown, Ohio.79,066 108,385 

Zanesville, Ohio.28,026 30,863 


ARE MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 

Population 

Canton, China, 1916.900,000* 

Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, 1911.67,000 

Caracas, Venezuela, 1916.86,880 

Cardiff, Wales, 1914 .186,763 

Cartagena, Colombia, 1918. 36,632 

Cartagena, Spain, 1917.101,542* 

Catania, Italy, 1915 .217,389* 

Cayenne, French Guiana, 1918.13,527 

Cettinje, Jugoslavia, 1918. .. . . .5,500 

Chemnitz, Germany, 1910.287,807 

Christchurch, New Zealand, 1916.92,773 

Christiania, Norway, 1910.241,834 

Coblenz, Germany, 1910 .56,487 

Cologne, Germany, 1910.516,527 

Colon, Panama, 1918.26,000 

Constantinople, Turkey, 1918.1,000,000* 

Copenhagen, Denmark, 1916. 605,772 

Cordoba, Argentina, 1914.104,894 

Cordoba, Spain, 1917. 72,316* 

Cork, Ireland, 1911.76,632 

Cuzco, Peru, 1918.10,000-15,000 

Damascus, Syria, 1918. 250,000* 

Danzig (free city), 1919.250,000* 

Dawson, Canada, 1911.3,013 

Delhi, India, 1911.232,837 

Dover, England, 1914.43,889 

Dresden, Germany, 1910.548,308 

Dublin, Ireland, 1914. 406,000 

Dundee, Scotland, 1915.178,574 

Dunedin, New Zealand, 1916.68,716 

Durban, Natal, 1911.31,896 

Edinburgh, Scotland, 1915.326,901 

Elberfeld, Germany, 1910.170,118 

Essen, Germany, 1916.463,481 

Fez, Morocco, 1918.105,855 

Fiume, 1910.49,806 

Florence, Italy, 1915.242,147 

Frankfort, Germany, 1910.414,598 

Fredericton, Canada, 1911.7,208 

Freetown, Sierra Leone, 1911.34,090 

Fuchau, China, 1916.624,000* 

Geneva, Switzerland, 1918.139,500 

Genoa, Italy, 1915.300,139 

Georgetown, British Guiana, 1918.54,723 

Ghent, Belgium, 1912.167,447 

Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., 1911.25,367 

Glasgow, Scotland, 1915.1,072,793 

Gothenburg, Sweden, 1917.191,535 

Granada, Spain, 1917.82,726 

Grimsby, England, 1914.77,554 

Guatemala, Guatemala, 1910.90,000 

Guayaquil, Ecuador, 1915.105,000* 

Hague, The, Netherlands, 1916.334,081 

Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1911.46,000 

Halle, Germany, 1910.180,551 



















































































































































APPENDIX 


457 


Hamburg, Germany, 1910. 93l“o35 

Hamilton, Bermuda, 1916. .2 627 

Hamilton, Canada, 1911. ’ ’ .8R969 

Hammerfest, Norway.'.’ ’' .2^239 

Hangchau, China, 1916.. ’ ’ ! 594^230* 

Hankau, China, 1916.1,321,280* 

Hanover, Germany, 1910..3021384 

Havana, Cuba, 1916.359^259 

Havre, France, 1911. 136J59 

Hebron, Holy Land.19’000* 

Helsingfors, Finland, 1912.170,500 

Hobart, Tasmania, 1916.39^632 

Hongkong, China, 1911.366T45 

Hull, England, 1914.287,472* 

Hyderabad, India, 1911.500^623 

Iquique, Chile, 1916.45,502 

Irkutsk, Siberia, 1913.129,700 

Jaffa, Holy Land, 1918.45,000* 

Jerusalem, Holy Land, 1918.85,000 

Johannesburg, Transvaal, 1911.237,104 

Kabul, Afghanistan, 1918.150,000 

Khartum, Egyptian Sudan, 1917.16,325 

Kief, Ukraine, 1913.610,190 

Kimberley, Cape of Good Hope, 1911.29,525 

Kingston, Canada.17,961 

Kingston, Jamaica, 1911.57,379 

Kioto, Japan, 1917.539,153 

Konigsberg, Germany, 1910.245,853 

Krefeld, Germany, 1910.129,412 

Kumassi, Ashanti, 1918.24,000* 

La Guaira, Venezuela.8,000 

La Paz, Bolivia, 1915.100,097 

La Plata, Argentina, 1914.90,436 

Lassa, Tibet.20,000* 

Leeds, England, 1914.457,507* 

Leghorn, Italy, 1915.108,585* 

Leicester, England, 1914.231,152 

Leipzig, Germany, 1910.589,850 

Leith, Scotland, 1915.81,178 

Libreville, French Congo.3,000 

Li6ge, Belgium, 1912.170,634 

Lille, France, 1911.217,807 

Lima, Peru, 1913.143,500 

Limoges, France, 1911.92,181 

Lisbon, Portugal, 1911.435,359 

Liverpool, England, 1914.763,926 

Loanda, Port. W. Africa.14,000 

Lodz, Poland, 1913.415,604 

London, Canada, 1911.46,000 

London, England, 1914.4,518,021 

London, Greater, 1914.7,419,704 

Lucerne, Switzerland, 1918.44,400 

Lucknow, India, 1911.259,798 

Lyon, France, 1911.523,796 

Madras, India, 1911.518,660 

Madrid, Spain, 1917.648,760 

Magdeburg, Germany, 1910.279,685 

Malaga, Spain, 1917.140,000 

Manaos, Brazil, 1911.50,000* 

Manchester, England, 1914.731,830 

Mandalay, Burma, 1911.138,299 

Marseille, France, 1911.550,619 

Maskat, Oman, 1918.24,000 

Mecca, Hejas, 1918.80,000* 

Melbourne, Australia, 1917.695,640 

Messina, Italy, 1915.150,000 

Metz, Lorraine, 1910.68,667 

Mexico City, Mexico, 1910.471,066 

Milan, Italy, 1915.663,059 

Mocha, Turkey in Asia..5,000 

Mombasa, Br. E. Africa, 1918.30,000 

Monrovia, Liberia, 1918. 6,000 

Montevideo, Uruguay, 1917.376,163 

Montreal, Canada, 1911.470,480 

Moscow, Russia, 1915.1,817,100 


Population 


Munich, Germany, 1910.596,467 

Nancy, France, 1911.119,949 

Nogoya, Japan, 1917.389,272 

Naples, Italy, 1915.697,917 

Nassau, Bahama, 1911.13,554 

Nazareth, Holy Land.11,000 

Newcastle, England, 1914.271,523 

Njce, France, 1911. 142,940 

Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, 1913.112,300 

Nottingham, England, 1914.264,970 

Nuremberg, Germany, 1910.333,142 

Odessa, Ukraine, 1912.631,040 

Oporto, Portugal, 1911.194,009 

Osaka, Japan, 1917.1,460,218 

Ottawa, Canada, 1911.87,062 

Oxford, England, 1914.53,980 

Palermo, Italy, 1915.345,891 

Panama, Panama, 1915.60,028 

Para, Brazil, 1911 .200,000 

Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, 1917.38,191 

Paris, France, 1911.2,888,110' 

Peking, China, 1912.692,500 

Pernambuco, Brazil, 1911.150,000 

Perth, Australia, 1911.106,792 

Peterborough, Canada, 1901.11,239 

Petrograd, Russia, 1915.2,318,645 

Pietermaritzburg, Natal, 1911.14,737 

Piraeus, Greece, 1907.73,579 

Pisa, Italy, 1915.,.67,285* 

Port Arthur, Canada, 1901.3,214 

Port au Prince, Haiti, 1918.100,000* 

Port Said, Egypt, 1917.90,000* 

Portsmouth, England, 1914.241,748 

Posen, Germany, 1910.156,696 

Potsdam, Germany, 1910. . ..62,224 

Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1914.541,500 

Pretoria, Transvaal, 1911.29,618 

Puebla, Mexico, 1910.96,121 

Quebec, Canada, 1911.78,710 

Queenstown, Ireland.9,082 

Quito, Ecuador, 1915.70,000 

Rangoon, Burma, 1911.293,316 

Reims, France, 1911.115,178 

Riga, Latvia, 1913.569,100 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1911.1,128,637 

Rome, Italy, 1915.590,960 

Rosario, Argentina, 1914.222,592 

Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1916.487,077 

Roubaix, France, 1911..'.122,723 

Rouen, France, 1911.124,987 

St. Etienne, France, 1911.148,656 

St. John, Canada, 1911.42,511 

St. John’s, Newfoundland, 1911 .32,292 

St. Quentin, France, 1911 .55,571 

Saloniki, Greece, 1915.157,889* 

Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, 1910.97,600 

San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 1910.68,022 

San Salvador, Salvador, 1916.22,423 

Santiago, Chile, 1916.397,550 

Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, 1912.22,000 

Santos, Brazil, 1911.35,000 

Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1911.450,000 

Seoul, Chosen, 1915.302,686* 

Seville, Spain, 1917.164,322 

Shanghai, China, 1916.1,000,000 

Sheffield, England, 1914.472,234 

Siangtan, China, 1908.1,000,000* 

Singanfu, China, 1908.1,000,000* 

Singapore, Straits Settlements. 1917.369,182 

Smyrna, 1918.375,000* 

Sofia, Bulgaria, 1910.102,812 

Southampton, England, 1914.122,577* 

Stettin, Germany, 1916.223,883 

Stockholm, Sweden, 1917.408,792 

Strassburg, Alsace, 1910.178,290 


























































































































































458 


AREA , POPULATION , ETC, 


Population 


Stuttgart, Germany, 1910.286,218 

Suchau, China, 1916.500,000* 

Sucre, Bolivia, 1915.29,686 

Suez, Egypt, 1917.34,000* 

Swansea, Wales, 1914.119,720* 

Sydney, Australia, 1916.636,353* 

Tampico, Mexico....9,885 

Tananarivo, Madagascar, 1918.63,115 

Tangier, Morocco, 1901.35,003 

Tashkend, Russian Turkestan, 1913.272,300 


Teheran, Persia, 1918.280,000* 

Tiberias, Holy Land, 1905.5,000 

Tientsin, China, 1916.800,000* 

Tiflis, Russia, 1913.327,800 

Timbuktu, Sudan, 1918.4,270 


Tokyo, Japan, 1917.2,244,796 

Toronto, Canada, 1911.376,538 

Trebizond, Armenia.55,000* 

Trieste, Italy, 1914.246,500* 

Tripoli, Tripoli, 1911.73,000 


Population 


Trondhjem, Norway, 1910.45,228 

Tunis, Tunis, 1918.277,083 

Turin, Italy, 1915.451,994* 

Upernivik, Greenland.700 

Valencia, Spain, 1917.245,871* 

Valparaiso, Chile, 1916.201,507 

Vancouver, Canada, 1911.100,401 

Venice, Italy, 1915.168,038* 

Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1910.48,633 

Versailles, France, 1911.60,458 

Victoria, Canada, 1911.31,660 

Vienna, Austria, 1911.2,149,800* 

Vladivostok, Siberia, 1911 ... .91,464 

Warsaw, Poland, 1913.909,491 

Wellington, New Zealand, 1916.95,235 

West Ham, England, 1914.294,476* 

Windsor, Canada, 1901.12,153 

Winnipeg, Canada, 1916.163,000 

Wuchang, China.300,000* 

Yarmouth, Canada, 1911.6,600 

Yokohama, Japan, 1917.428,663 

Zanzibar (British), 1918.35,000* 

Zurich, Switzerland, 1918.213,900 


ELEVATION OF SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 


Feet 

Abyssinian Plateau.5-7,000 

Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina (highest in South America) . .22,860 

Apo, Mindanao, Philippines.i.10,312 

Ararat, Armenia...17,325 

Mt. Blanc, Alps, France (highest in Alps).15,781 

Bolivian Plateau.,.10-13,000 

Brazilian Plateau.2-2,500 

Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador.20,498 

Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador.19,613 

Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia (highest in Europe).18,200 

Etna, Sicily.10,835 

Everest, Himalayas, Nepal (highest in the world).29,002 

Fujiyama, Japan.12,365 

Hecla, Iceland.5,110 

Kanchanjanga.28,156 

Kenia, Africa. . ..18,620 

Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest in Africa) . 19,780 

Kosciusko, Australia (highest in Australia).7,336 

Lassen, Sierra Nevada, Cal.10,577 

Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada (highest in Canada).19,539 

McKinley, Alaska (highest in North America).20,300 

Mauna Kea, Hawaiian Islands.13,805 


Feet 

Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands.13,675 

Mayon, Luzon Island, Philippines.8,900 

Mexican Plateau.5-6,000 

Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N. C. (highest in Eastern U. S.). 6,711 
Mt. Marcy, New York.5,344 

Mt. Tina, Haiti.10,300 

Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico).18,314 

Pico del Turquino, Cuba.8,600 

Pike's Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado.14,111 

Popocatepetl, Mexico. 17,798 

Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington. .14,363 

St. Elias, Alaska.18,025 

San Francisco Mountain, Arizona.12,794 

Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California.14,380 

Tibet Plateau.10-15.000 

United States, Western Plateau.4-6,000 

Vesuvius, Italy.4,200 

Washington, White Mountains, N. H. (highest in North¬ 
eastern U. S.).6,279 

Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California (highest in Conti¬ 
nental U. S.).14,502 

Yunque, Porto Rico.3,609 


SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 



Length in 

Basin Area 



Length in 

Basin Area 



Miles 

Sq.Miles 

Ocean 


Miles 

Sq. Miles 

Ocean 

North America 



Europe 



Arkansas. 

.2,170 

185,671 

Atlantic 

Seine. 

. 482 

30,300 

Atlantic 

Colorado. 

.2,000 

225,049 

Pacific 

Thames. 

. 228 

6,100 

Atlantic 

Columbia. 

1,400 

216,537 

Pacific 

Volga. 

.2,400 

563,300 

Caspian 

Mackenzie. 

.2,000 

590,000 

Arctic 


Missouri. 

.3,000 

527,155 

Atlantic 

Asia 




Missouri-Mississippi. . . . 

Nelson. 

Ohio. 

Rio Grande. 

St. Lawrence. 

.4,300 

.1,732 

. 975 

.1,800 

.2,200 

1,257,000 

432,000 

201,720 

240,000 

530,000 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Amur. 

Brahmaputra. 

Ganges. 

Hoang-Ho. 

Indus. 

.2,800 

.1,800 

.1,500 

.2,700 

.1,800 

520.000 

425,000 

440,000 

570,000 

372,700 

Pacific 

Indian 

Indian 

Pacific 

Indian 

Y ukon. 

.2,000 

440,000 

Pacific 

Irawadi. 

Lena. 

.1,500 

.2,800 

158,000 

950,000 

Indian 

Arctic 

South America 




Mekong. 

.2,800 

280,000 

Pacific 

Amazon. 

Orinoco. 

.3,300 

.1,350 

2,500,000 

366,000 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Ob. 

Y angtse. 

.3,200 

.3,200 

1,000,000 

548,000 

Arctic 

Pacific 

Plata. 

S3o Francisco. 

.2,580 

.1,800 

1,200,000 

200,000 

Atlantic 

Atlantic 

Yenisei. 

.3,000 

1,500,000 

Arctic 

Europe 




Africa 




Danube. 

.1,770 

300,000 

Atlantic 

Congo. 

.2.900 

1,200,000 

Atlantic 

Dneiper. 

.1,200 

242,000 

Atlantic 

Niger. 

.2.600 

563,300 

Atlantic 

Dwina. 

1,000 

140,000 

Arctic 

Nile. 

.3,400 

1,273,000 

Atlantic 

Elbe. 

. 725 

55,000 

Atlantic 

Zambezi. 

1,500 

600,000 

Indian 

Po. 

. 400 

27,000 

Atlantic 

Australia 




Rhine. 

. 800 

75,000 

Atlantic 

Darling. 

.1,100 


Indian 

Rhone. 

. 500 

38,000 

Atlantic 

Murray. 


270,000 

Indian 




































































































































APPENDIX 


459 


SOME OF THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WORLD 


Aral Sea. 


Area in 

Sq. Miles 

Elevation 
in Feet 
160 

Greatest 
Depth 
in Feet 
225 

Baikal. 


. 12,500 

1,312 

4,550 

Balkash. 


. .7,800 

780 

70 

Caspian. 


. 169,000 

—85i 

2,400 

Chad, variable with season 

. . 10,000 

800-900 

12 

Dead Sea. 

and often more 

.370 

—1,3101 

1,330 

Erie. 


. .9,990 

573 

210 

Great Bear Lake. . . 


. . 11,200 

200 


Great Salt Lake. ... 


.. . 2,360 

4,218 

30-50 

Great Slave Lake. . 


. . .10,100 

over 650 


1 Below sea level. 



Area in 

Elevation 

Greatest 

Depth 


Sq. Miles 

in Feet 

in Feet 

Huron. 

.22,322 

582 

750 

Ladoga. 

.7,000 

60 

730 

Manitoba.. 

.1,850 

810 


Michigan. 

.21,729 

582 

870 

Nicaragua. 

.3,600 

110 

83 

Nyassa. 

.14,000 

1,500 

600 + 

Ontario. 

.7,104 

247 

738 

Superior. 


602 

1,008 

Tanganyika. 

.12,650 

2,800 

2,100 

Titicaca. 

.3,300 

12,875 

700 

Victoria Nyanza. 

.30,000 

4,000 

590 + 

Winnipeg. 

.9,400 

710 

70 


RACES OF MANKIND 

Caucasians... ..S66,000,000* Polynesians. 35,000,000* 

Mongolians.630,000,000* American Indians. 27,000,000* 

Negroes.134,000,000* 


RELIGIONS OF MANKIND 


Buddhists and Brahmins.650,000,000 

Christians....440,000,000 

Jews.\.8,000,000 


Mohammedans.180,000,000 

Pagans and others.250,000,000 








































INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 


(Webster's International Dictionary) 


a, as in ale ; a, as in sen'ate ; a, as in c&re ; a, 
j, as in eve * v s - v ’ - 


. • . . 1 , e _ > a > as 111 care i a i as in am ; it, as in arm ; a, as in ask ; o, as in fi'nal; a, as in all; 

. as . m f' vent ; e, as in end ; 5, as in fern ; e, as in re'cent; I, as in ice ; 1, as in 1-de'a ; I, as in Ill ; 

o, as in old , o, as in o-bey^; 6, as in 6rb ;_o, as in odd ; u, as in use ; 4, as in d-nite' ; u, as in rude ; u, as in full; 

u, as in up ; u, as m urn ; y, as in pit/y ; oo, as in food ; oo, as in foot; ou, as in out; oi, as in oil ; n, representing 
simply the nasal tone of the preceding vowel, as in ensemble (a.N'saN'b'1); ’ (for voice glide), as in pardon (par'd’n); 
g (hard), as in go , s (sharp), as in so ; z (like s sonant), as in zone ; ch (= tsh), as in chair ; sh, for ch, as in 
machine ; zh ( = sh made sonant), for z, as in azure ; j (= dzh), for g, as in gem ; k, for ch, as in chorus ; kw, 
for qu, as in queen ; Its (surd), for x, as in vex ; gz (sonant), for x, as in exist; f, for ph, as in philosophy ; hw, 
tor wh, as in what; t, for ed, as in baked ; ng, as in long ; n (like ng), for n before the sound of k or hard g, as 
m bank ; n (ordinary sound), as in no ; th (sonant), for th, as in then ; th (surd), as in thin. 

The primary accent is indicated by a short, heavy mark ('), the secondary by a lighter mark ('). 

The numbers refer to pages. Where several references are given, the pages on which the principal description 
is to be found are indicated by heavier type. 


A 

Aachen (a'Ken), 343. 348. 

Aberdeen (£b'er-den), 294, 301, 

327. 

Abyssinia (ab'ls-sln'i-a), 403, 420, 
421. 

Abyssinian Mountains, 411: 

Acapulco (a/ka-pool'ko), 196. 

Aconcagua, Mt. (-a'kon-ka'gwa), 259. 

Adams, Mt. (-ad'ainz), 134. 

Adelaide (ad'Alad), 430. 

Aden (a/den or a/den), 383. 

Adirondack Mountains (ad'l-ron'- 
dak-), 61, 62. 

Adriatic Sea (ad're-at'ik- or a/dri-), 
360, 363, 365, 368. 

ASgean Sea (e-je'an-), 365. 

Afghanistan (af-gSn'Is-tan'), 384. 

Africa (af'ri-ka), 310, 320, 322, 324, 
354, 403-422 ; animals, 407, 408 ; 
caravans on deserts, 409, 410; Cen¬ 
tral, 418-421; (see Central Africa); 
climate, 406 ; coast line, 403 ; ex¬ 
ploration and settlement, 408-409 ; 
forests, 406 ; inhabitants, 408 ; is¬ 
lands near, 421 ; lakes, 406 ; moun¬ 
tains, 403; Northern, 409-416 (see 
Barbary States, Egypt, and Sahara); 
railways, 413,418,420, 421; rivers, 
403 ; Southern, 416-418 (see South 
Africa) ; surface features, 403; 
west coast, 420. See also under 
various countries of Africa. 

Agriculture, 37, 202-203. See under 
names of countries, etc. 

Aix la Chapelle (aks-la-slia'pel' or 
as-), 348. 

Alabama (al'a-ba'ma), 59, 91, 92, 380. 

Alameda (Cal.) (a/la-ma'da), 152. 

Alaska (a-l&s'ka), 141, 155, 164-167 ; 
climate, 164 ; fishing, 164-166; 


mining, 166 ; surface features, 164 ; 
towns, 167. 

Albania (al-ba'm-a), 368, 371. 

Albany (N. Y.) (al'ba-nl), 69, 71, 72, 
349. 

Alberta (al-ber'ta), 180, 181. 

Albuquerque (N. Mex.) (iil'bdo-k&r'- 
k&), 156. 

Alderney (-al'dSr-nl), Isle of, 292. 

Aleppo (a-lep'o), 383. 

Aleutian Islands (a-lu'shan-), 164. 

Alexandria (al'egz-an'drl-a), 414. 

Alfalfa (al-tal'fa), 144, 270. 

Algeria (5,1-je'ri-a), 319, 409, 414. 

Algiers (al-jerz'), 416. 

Allegheny Plateau (al'e-ga'ni-), 59. 

Allegheny (Pa.), 69, 78. 

Allegheny River, 78. 

Almonds, 145. See also Fruits. 

Alps Mountains (alps-), 281, 288, 311, 
313, 319, 350, 355, 362, 376, 397. 

Alsace-Lorraine (al'sas' lo'ran'), 337. 

Altoona (Pa.) (al-tod'na), 69. 

Amazon (am'a-zon), 259, 267, 272, 
403, 422. 

Amsterdam (am^ster-dam'), 308. 

Anaconda (Mont.) (an'a-kon'da), 151. 

Andes Mountains (an'dez-), 259, 262, 
275 276. 

Andorra (an-dor'ra), 313, 319, 320. 

Androscoggin (an'dros-kog'gln), 49. 

Animals, in Africa, 408; Alaska, 167 ; 
Arctic regions, 18-20, 248 ; Asia, 
379; Australia, 253, 426; Belgium, 
309; British Isles, 292; Central 
States, 110-111; Denmark, 328; 
deserts, 250-251 ; Egypt, 412 ; 
France, 314 ; frigid zone, 248 ; In¬ 
dia, 399 ; Ireland, 297 ; Mexico, 
193; The Netherlands, 306 ; Persia, 
384 ; Philippine Islands, 176 ; Rus¬ 
sia in Asia, 385 ; South America, 
461 


263-265; Spain, 321 ; the steppes, 
253 ; temperate zone, 21-23, 251 ; 
torrid zone, 23-26, 248-249. 

Annapolis (Md.) (an-nSp'6-lls), 78. 

Ann Arbor (Mich.), 125. 

Antilles (an-tll'lez or aN-tel'), 197- 
198. 

Anti-trade winds (an'ti-trad'-), 227- 
228. 

Antwerp (ant'werp), 310, 311, 315. 

Apennines (ap'en-ninz), 355,357,359. 

Apia (a-pe'a or a'p£-a), 173. 

Appalachian Mountains (ap'pa-la'- 
clil-an- or -lach'I-an-), 8, 11, 37, 
41, 58, 59, 83, 84. 

Apples, in Central States, 110 ; Mex¬ 
ico, 192 ; Michigan peninsula, 110 ; 
Middle Atlantic States, 63,; New 
York State, 63 ; Nova Scotia, 184 ; 
Southern States, 89 ; Western 
States, 142. 

Apricots (ap'ri-kots), 145, 146. 

Arabia (a-ra'bl-a), 381, 383; agri¬ 
culture, 383 ; animals, 383 ; cities, 
383 ; government, 383 ; products, 
383. 

Aral Sea (ar'al-), 332, 373. 

Ararat, Mt. (-ar'a-rat), 377. 

Archangel (ark-an'jel), 331. 

Arctic Circle (ark'tik-), 219, 327. 

Arctic Ocean, 286, 324. 

Arequipa (a/ra-ke'pa), 276. 

Argentina (ar'gen-te'na), 259, 263, 
266, 269-271 ; agriculture, 270 ; 
cities, 271 ; climate, 269 ; com¬ 
merce, 271 ; dairying, 271 ; farm¬ 
ing, 270 ; lumbering and mining, 
270-271; manufacturing, 271 ; 
ranching, 270, 314, 434, 446. 

Arizona (ar'i-zo'na), 134,. 135, 138, 
139, 156. 

Arkansas (ar'kan-sa'), 91. 




462 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Armenia (ar-me'ni-a), 378. 

Ascension Island (as-sen'shun-), 421. 

Asheville (N. C.) (ash'vll), 85. 

Ashland (Wis.) (ash'land), 117. 

Asia (a'sha), 281, 319, 324, 331, 
373-402 ; animals, 379 ; area, 373 ; 
climate, 373 ; mountains, 376-377 ; 
people, 377 ; rivers, 377 ; surface 
features, 373-376, 430; see also 
under countries of Asia. 

Astoria (Ore.) (as-to'ri-a), 140, 141 ; 
154. 

Asuncion (a-sdon'se-on'), 272. 

Atacama, Desert of (-a/ta-ka'ma), 
263, 279. 

Athens (atli'enz), 370, 371. 

Atlanta (Ga.) (at-lan'ta), 93, 94, 

98-99. 

Atlas Mountains (at'las-), 414. 

Auburn (Me.) (a'burn), 51. 

Auburn (N. Y.), 69. 

Auckland (ak'land), 431. 

Augusta (Ga.) (a-gus'ta), 94. 

Augusta (Me.), 49, 51. 

Austin (Tex.) (as'tui), 100. 

Australia (as-tra'11-a), 302, 315, 422- 
430; agriculture, 428; animals, 426- 
427 ; area, 422 ; cities, 429-430 ; cli¬ 
mate, 422 ; coast line, 422 ; dairy¬ 
ing, 428 ; domestic animals, 428; 
fishing, 428 ; government, 426 ; his¬ 
tory, 426, 428 ; manufacturing, 
429 ; mining, 428-429 ; native in¬ 
habitants, 426 ; plants, 424-426 ; 
rivers, 424 ; sheep raising, 428 ; 
surface features, 422 ; vegetation, 
424, 434, 440. See also under 
various countries of Australia. 

Austria (as'trl-a) 329, 336, 361-363, 
365. 

Axis, rotation of earth on its, 218- 

221 . 

Azir, 378. 

Azores Islands (a-zorz'-), 324. 

B 

Babylon (bab'i-ltin), 381. 

Bagdad (bag-dad' or Mg'd&d), 381. 

Bahamas (ba-lia'mas), 198, 356. 

Bahia (ba-e'a), 269. 

Baker Island (ba'ker-), 174. 

Baker, Mt, 134. 

Baku (ba-koo'), 334. 

Balearic Isles (bal'e-ar'Ik-), 324. 

Balkan Mountains (bal-kan'- or bal'- 
kan-), 365, 367. 

Balkan Peninsula. 365-371. 

Ballarat (b31'la-rat'), 430. 

Baltic Sea (bal'tlk'-), 281-285, 325, 
329, 331, 336, 339, 341. 

Baltimore (Md.) (bal'tl-mor), 61, 63, 
69, 70, 78, 209, 307, 371. 

Baluchistan (ba-loo'chls-tan'), 396. 

Bamboo, India, 177, 395, 399. 

Bananas, Central America, 197 ; 
Cuba and Porto Rico, 169 ; Guiana, 
272 ; Haiti, 198 ; Jamaica, 197 ; 
Mexico, 193 ; Pacific Islands, 432 ; 
Philippine Islands, 176 ; South 


Africa, 417 ; tropical Andean coun¬ 
tries, 273. 

Bangkok (ban'kSk'), 396. 

Bangor (Me.) (ban'gOr), 49, 50. 
Barbary States (bar'ba-ri-), 409, 
414-416 ; agriculture, 414 ; cities, 

414, 416; climate, 414; inhabitants, 

415, 416 ; products, 414 ; surface 
features, 414, 421. 

Barcelona (bar'se-lo'na), 323. 

Bar Harbor (Me.), 55. 

Barley, in Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
British Isles, 292 ; Central States, 
111; Chile, 279; Ecuador, 275; 
Egypt, 412 ; Germany, 342 ; Ire¬ 
land, 297 ; The Netherlands, 306 ; 
Northwestern States, 141 ; Ontario, 
184 ; Persia, 383; Russia, 333 ; 
Spain, 321 ; Sweden, 327 ; Vene¬ 
zuela, 272. 

Barmen (bar'men), 348. 

Barre (Vt.) (bar're), 45. 

Basel (bii'zel), 353. 

Basin Ranges, 134. 

Batavia (ba-ta'vi-a), 431, 433. 

Bath (Me.), 50. 

Baton Rouge (La.) (bat'un roozh'), 

100 . 

Bavaria (ba-va'ri-a), 347. 

Bay City (Midi.), 119. 

Beans, in British Isles, 292 ; the 
Netherlands, 306 ; Venezuela, 272. 
Belfast (bel-fast' or bel'fast), 297, 301. 
Belgium (bel'ji-um), 281, 305, 308- 
311, 319, 328 ; agriculture, 309; 
cities, 310, 311 ; colonies, 310, 420- 
421 ; commerce, 310 ; government, 
309; manufacturing, 310, 311; 
mining, 309-310 ; population, 308- 
309; surface features, 308, 428, 434. 
Belgrade (bel'grad'), 365, 366-377, 
371. 

Belize (be-lez'), 196. 

Bellingham (Wash.) (bel'ing-ham), 
140, 141, 155. 

Belt of calms. 229, 232. 

Benares (ben-a'rez), 401. 

Bendigo (ben'dl-go), 430. 

Ben Nevis (-ne'vls), 291. 

Benue River (ben'we-). 418. 

Bergen (bar'gen), 327, 331. 

Bering Sea (be'ring-), 164. 165. 
Berkeley (Cal.) (berk'll), 152. 
Berkshire Hills (bSrk'slnr-), 41, 55. 
Berlin (ber-lin'), 345-346, 350, 365. 
Bermudas (ber-mu'das), 199. 

Berne (bern), 353 

Bethlehem (beth'le-liem or -le-em), 
380. 

Bhutan (boo-tan'), 396, 399. 
Biddeford (Me.) (bld'de-ferd), 51. 
Billings (Mont.) (bil'llngz), 147, 148. 
Binghamton (N. Y.) (blng'am-tun), 
69, 70. 

Birmingham (Ala.) (ber'ming-liam), 
91, 94. 

Birmingham (Eng.) (ber'mlng-am), 
294, 296, 29,s. 

Bisbee (Ariz.) (blz'be), 138, 156. 
Black Forest, 342, 344. 


Black Hills, 119. 

Black Sea, 331, 336, 364, 365, 368, 
378. 

Blanc, Mont (mox'blaN'), 313, 376, 
397. 

Bogota (bo'go-ta'), 274. 

Boise (Idaho) (boi'za). 152. 

Bokhara, city of (-bo-aa/ra), 385, 
386. 

Bolivia (bo-liv'I-a), 265, 271, 272, 
276-278. 

Bombay (b5m-ba'), 401. 

Boot and shoe making, 51-52, 70, 

126, 186. 

Bordeaux (bor'do'), 318. 

Borneo (bor'ne-o), 422, 431. 

Bosporus (bos'po-rus), 366, 368. 
Boston (Mass.) (bos'tun), 46, 53-54, 
209, 313, 371. 

Boulogne (boo-15n'), 318. 

Bradford (Eng.) (brad'ferd), 295, 298. 
Bradford (Pa.), 66. 

Brahmaputra ( bra/m a-poo'tra), 397. 
Brazil (bra-zil'), 259, 266, 267-269 ; 
area, 267, 434 ; cities, 269 ; climate, 

267 ; drainage, 267 ; forests, 267- 

268 ; mining and manufacturing, 

269 ; products, 268-269 ; rivers, 
267, 318, 446. 

Bremen (brem'en), 337, 347. 

Breslau (bres'lou), 343, 347. 
Brickmaking, 69, 120. 

Bridgeport (Conn.) (brij'port), 52. 
Brindisi (br^n'de-ze), 354. 

Bristol (bris'tul), 298, 300, 301. 
British Africa (brlt'Ish af'ri-ka), 409, 
417. 

British Columbia (-kS-lum'bl-a), 141, 
180, 181, 184. 

British Empire (-em'pir), 295, 300. 
British Guiana (-g£-a'na), 272. 
British Honduras (-h5n-du'ras), 196. 
British Isles, 288, 289-304, 305 ; agri¬ 
culture, 292-293 ; animals, 292 ; 
area, 289, 434 ; cities, 298-302; 
climate, 291 ; coast line, 291 ; colo¬ 
nies, 302 ; farm products, 292 ; fish¬ 
ing, 293-294 ; foreign commerce, 
302 ; government, 304; grazing, 
292 ; inhabitants, 289 ; manufac¬ 
turing, 294-297 ; mining, 294; 
mountains, 291 ; navy, 302 ; popu¬ 
lation, 292, 434 ; position, 289; 
ships and shipping, 302-304 ; sur¬ 
face features, 291, 311, 325, 337, 
374, 434. 

British Straits Settlements, 396. 
Brockton (Mass.) (brok'tun), 51. 
Brooklyn (N. Y.) (brook'lln), 72, 73. 
Brunswick (Ga.) (brunz'wik), 85. 
Brussels (brus'selz), 311. 

Bucharest (boo'ka-rest' or bu'-), 367. 
Budapest (boo'da-pgst), 364, 365. 
Buenos Aires (bo'nus a'rlz), 271. 
Buffalo (N. Y.) (buf'fa-lo), 69, 71,72, 
74-75,118, 371. 

Building stones, 8 ; in Belgium, 310 ; 
British Isles, 294 ; Canada, 184 ; 
Central States, 119; France, 314; 
Ireland, 297 ; Middle Atlantic 









INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


463 


States, 67 ; New England, 44-45 ; 
New York, 67 ; Pennsylvania, 67 ; 
Southern States, 91 ; Western 
States, 139. 

Bulgaria (bool-ga'rl-a), 366, 367. 

Bullfrog (Nev.), 137. 

Burlington (Vt.) (bur'ling-tun), 54. 

Burma (btir'ma), 396, 401. 

Butte (Mont.) (but), 138, 151. 

C 

Cadiz (kad'iz), 323. 

Cairo (ki'rft), 410, 411, 413, 418. 

Calais (ka'la'), 318. 

Calcutta (kal-kut'ta), 400, 401. 

Calgary (kal'ga-rl), 183. 

California (kal'l-fdr'nl-a), 66, 133, 
134, 138, 139, 142, 143, 145-146, 
152-154, 288, 320, 324, 334, 426. 

Callao (kal-la'o or kal-ya'o), 276. 

Calumet (Mich.) (kal'u-met), 119. 

Cambridge (Eng.) (kam'brlj), 300. 

Cambridge (Mass.), 54. 

Camden (N J.) (kam'den), 69, 77. 

Camels, in Arabia, 383 ; Egypt, 412. 

Campos (kaN'poosh), 262. 

Canada, (kan'a-da), 167, 179-188; 
agriculture, 182-184; cities, 185- 
188 ; climate, 180-181 ; fishing, 
181-182 ; forests, 181 ; govern¬ 
ment, 180 ; history, 179-180 ; lum¬ 
bering, 181 ; mining, 184 ; popu¬ 
lation, 201 ; surface features, 180 ; 
transportation, 185, 281, 286, 287, 
288, 302, 428, 434, 446. 

Canals, in China, 390; drainage 
canal, Chicago, 124; Erie, 70, 71, 
74, 75, 185 ; Germany, 345, 346 ; 
Kaiser Wilhelm, 348 ; Manchester- 
Liverpool ship canal, 391 ; Middle 
Atlantic States, 71 ; Panama, 100 ; 
170-171, 413 ; Soo Canal, 121 ; 
Suez, 413; in United Kingdom, 
299. 

Canary Islands, 324, 421. 

Cancer, Tropic of, 220. 

Cantabrian Mountains (kan-ta'brl- 
an-), 320, 321. 

Canton (kan-ton'), 391. 

Cape Breton Island (-brlt'un- or 
-brSt'un-), 184. 

Cape Colony, 409, 416. 

Cape May (N. J.), 61. 

Cape of Good Hope, 409, 416. 

Cape of Good Hope, Colony of, 417, 
418. 

Cape Town, 413, 416, 418. 

Cape Verde Islands (-verd-), 324, 
421. _ 

Capricorn, Tropic of. 220. 

Caracas (ka-ra'kas), 272. 

Cardiff (kar'dlf), 301. 

Caribbean Sea (kar'ib-be'an-), 197. 

Carpathian Mountains (kar-pa'thl- 
ffln-), 362. 

Carpet manufacturing, 70, 77, 295, 
3H. 

Carrara marble (kar-ra'ra-), 356. 

Cascade Ranges, 38, 134. 


Caspian Sea (kas'pi-an-), 332, 373, 
383. 

Catskills (kats'klls), 62. 

Cattle raising, in Alaska, 167 ; Ara¬ 
bia, 385 ; Argentina, 270 ; Austra¬ 
lia, 428; Austria and Hungary, 363; 
Balkan Peninsula, 366, 367; Brazil, 
269; British Isles, 292, 297 ; Can¬ 
ada, 183 ; Central States, 110-111 ; 
Channel Islands, 292 ; Chile, 279 ; 
Colombia, 274 ; Ecuador, 275 ; 
Egypt, 412 ; France, 314 ; Ger¬ 
many, 343 ; Great Plains, 113-114 ; 
Ireland, 297 ; Madagascar, 421 ; 
Mexico, 193 ; The Netherlands, 
306; Paraguay, 272 ; Peru, 275; 
Russia, 333 ; Russia in Asia, 385 ; 
South Africa, 417 ; Southern 
States, 90; Spain, 321 ; Turkey 
in Europe, 367-368 ; United States, 
206 ; Uruguay, 271 ; world distri¬ 
bution of industry, 439, 440. 

Caucasian race (ka-ka'shan-), 254- 
255. 

Caucasus Mountains (ka'ka-sus-), 
281, 331, 332. 

Cayuga, Lake (-ka-yoo'ga), 75. 

Celebes (sel'e-bez), 431. 

Cement, production of, 70, 91, 119, 
120 . 

Central Africa, 418-421 ; divisions, 
419-421 ; native inhabitants, 419 ; 
the Sudan, 419 ; value of rivers 
for transportation, 418-419 ; west 
coast countries, 420. 

Central America, 196-197, 201. 

Central Asia, 385-386. 

Central States, 103-129 ; agricul¬ 
ture, 106-114; cities, 121-129; 
climate, 105-106; dairying, 110, 
111, 119; farming, 106-112; fish¬ 
ing, 115; level land and moun¬ 
tains, 103-105; lumbering, 115; 
manufacturing, 119-120; mining, 
115-119; rainfall, 106; ranching, 
112-114; surface features, 103- 
106 ; transportation of goods, 120- 
121 . 

Cettinje (tse'ten-ya), 366. 

Ceylon (se-lon'), 401. 

Chad, Lake ( chad), 406, 420. 

Champaign (Ill.) (sham-pan'), 124. 

Channel Islands, 289, 292. 

Charleston (S. C.) (charlz'tun), 85, 
89, 92, 99. 

Charlotte (N. C.) (sliar'lot), 94. 

Chattanooga (Tenn.) (chat'ta-noo'- 
ga), 91, 93, 94, 99. 

Chehalis River (c.he-ha'lis-), 156. 

Chelan, Lake (-die'lan'), 159. 

Chelsea (Mass.) (chel'se), 54. 

Chemnitz (kem'nlts), 343, 347, 350. 

Chesapeake Bay (ches'a-pek-), 60,61, 
70, 79. 

Chester (Pa.) (ches'ter), 77. 

Cheyenne (Wyo.) (shl'en'), 144. 

Chicago (Ill.) (sln-ka'go), 118, 119, 
121-124, 299, 371. 

Chicago River, 121. 

Chile (che'la), 262, 263, 266, 278- 


279 ; agriculture, 279 ; cities, 279 ; 
climate, 278 ; manufacturing, 279 ; 
mining, 278 ; progress, 279 ; sur¬ 
face features, 278; 446. 

Chimborazo, Mt. (-chim'bo-ra'zo), 
275. 

China, Republic of (-clil'na), 386- 
391 ; agriculture, 389 ; area, 388 ; 
backwardness, 387 ; canals, 390 ; 
character of people, 387 ; cities, 
391 ; fishing, 389 ; floods, 388 ; 
government, 387 ; Great Wall, 386- 

387 ; manufacturing, 390; min¬ 
erals, 389-390; population, 387- 

388 ; products, 389 ; religion, 387 ; 
transportation, 390, 434, 449. 

Chosen, 392-395. 

Christiania (kris-te-a'ne-a), 326-327. 

Cinchona (sin-ko'na), 275. 

Cincinnati (O.) (sin'sln-na'ti), 111, 
120, 128, 294, 371. 

Clarksville (Tenn.), 89. 

Cleveland (O.) (klev'land), 118, 125. 

Coal, 4-5, 37-38, 64-66 ; anthracite 
and soft or bituminous, 5 ; Argen¬ 
tina, 271 ; Australia, 429 ; Austria- 
Hungary, 364 ; Belgium, 309, 310 ; 
Brazil, 269; British Isles, 294; 
Canada, 184 ; Central States, 115— 
116 ; Chile, 278; China, 390; Col¬ 
orado, 139 ; Europe, 285 ; France, 
314 ; French Indo-China, 396 ; Ger¬ 
many, 343 ; India, 399 ; Japan, 
393 ; Middle Atlantic States, 64 ; 
Montana, 137 ; The Netherlands, 
307 ; New Zealand, 429 ; Peru, 275 ; 
Russia, 334; South Africa, 417 ; 
Southern States, 91; Spanish Pen¬ 
insula, 321 ; Sweden, 328; United 
States, 37, 38; Wales, 294; West¬ 
ern States, 136, 137, 139; world 
distribution of, 441, 442. 

Coastal Plains, 58-59, 83, 84. 

Coast Ranges, 38, 134. 

Cobalt (ko'balt), 184. 

Coblenz, 348. 

Cocoa (ko'ko), in Belgian Congo, 
421 ; Brazil, 269 ; Central America, 
197; Colombia, 274; Cuba and 
Porto Rico, 169; Ecuador, 275; 
Guiana, 272 ; method of produc¬ 
tion, 275 ; Peru, 275 ; tropical An¬ 
dean countries, 273 ; Venezuela, 
272 ; world distribution of indus¬ 
try, 439. 

Cocoanuts, in Bahamas, 198 ; Ceylon, 
401 ; Cuba and Porto Rico, 169 ; 
Florida, 90 ; India, 399; Mexico, 
193 ; Philippine Islands, 176 ; 
Straits Settlements, 396. 

Coeur d’Alene (Idaho) (ker da-l&n'), 
138, 151. 

Coffee, in Abyssinia, 420; Argentina, 
270 ; Brazil, 268-269 ; Central 
America, 197 ; Ceylon, 401; Co¬ 
lombia,274 ; Costa Rica, 197 ; Cuba 
and Porto Rico, 169; East Indies, 
431; Ecuador, 275; Guiana, 272; 
Haiti, 198 ; Hawaiian Islands, 173 ; 
Java, 431; Madagascar, 421 ; Mex- 




464 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


ico, 193 ; Mocha, 383 ; Pacific is¬ 
lands, 432 ; Peru, 275 ; Philippine 
Islands, 431; South Africa, 417 ; 
tropical Andean countries, 273; 
Venezuela, 272 ; world distribution 
of industry, 438, 439. 

Cohoes (ko-lioz'), 349. 

Colima, Mt. (-ko-le'ma), 191. 

Cologne (ko-lon'), 339, 343, 348. 

Colombia (ko-lom'be-a), 272, 273- 
274. 

Colon (ko-lon'), 170. 

Colorado (kol-6-ra'do), 137, 139, 143, 
144, 148, 149, 150-151, 157, 190. 

Colorado Canyon (-kan'yun), 157, 
159. 

Colorado Plateau, 134. 

Colorado River, 135, 159. 

Colorado Springs (Colo.), 151. 

Columbia (S. C.)(ko-lum'bT-a), 94. 

Columbia, District of, 78. 

Columbia Plateau, 134. 

Columbia River, 135, 146, 150. 

Columbus (O.) (ko-lum'bus), 125, 
128. 

Concord (N. H.) (kon'kerd), 45. 

Congo, Belgian (-k5n'g6), 310, 319, 

420—421 

Congo River, 403, 406, 418-419, 420. 

Congo State, 310, 420-421. 

Connecticut (k5n-net'I-kut), 52, 54. 

Connecticut River, 47, 52. 

Constantinople (kbn-stan'ti-no'p'l), 
336, 368, 371, 381. 

Copenhagen (ko'pen-ha'gen), 329. 

Copper, 5; in Argentina, 271; Ari¬ 
zona, 138 ; Australia, 429 ; Austria 
and Hungary, 363; Bolivia, 276- 
277 ; British Isles, 294 ; Canada, 
184 ; Central States, 118-119; Chile, 
278; Colorado, 137 ; Cuba, 169 ; 
Germany, 343 ; Japan, 393 ; Mex¬ 
ico, 194; Montana, 137, 138 ; Nor¬ 
way, 326 ; Peru, 275; Russia, 334 ; 
South Africa, 417 ; Spanish Penin¬ 
sula, 321 ; Sweden, 328 ; Tennessee, 
92; United States, 37, 38, 443; 
Western States, 136, 137, 138. 

Coral carving and coral fishing, Italy, 
356, 357. 

Cordillera, the (kor-diPler-a), 8, 38. 

Cordoba (kor'do-va), 271. 

Corn, in Australia, 428 ; Austria and 
Hungary, 363 ; Brazil,269 ; Central 
States, 107, 108-109 ; cultivation 
and harvesting of, 108; Egypt, 412 ;* 
extent of production in Central 
States, 108 ; geographic distribution 
of world’s production of, 436; 
Italy, 356; Northwestern States, 
141 ; Ontario, 184; Peru, 275; 
regions of production in United 
States, 201, 202; Russia, 333; 
Russia in Asia, 385 ; Servia, 366 ; 
Southern States, 90 ; Spain, 321 ; 
tropical Andean countries, 273; 
uses to which put, 108-109. 

Corsica (kor'sl-ka) island, 311. 

Costa Rica (kos'ta re'ka), 196, 197. 

Cotopaxi, Mt. (-ko'to-paks'£). 275. 


Cotton, in Brazil, 269 ; Egypt, 412 ; 
French Indo-China, 396; Guiana, 
272; India, 399; Korea, 395; 
Mexico, 193; Persia, 383; Peru, 
275 ; Russia in Asia, 385 ; sections 
of the world which produce, 440 ; 
Southern Russia, 333; Southern 
States, 86; Spanish peninsula, 321 ; 
in Texas, 100 ; United States, 203. 

Cotton manufacturing, Austria and 
Hungary,364; Belgium,310; Brazil, 
269; France, 315; Germany, 344; 
Great Britain, 295-296 ; India, 
400 ; Italy, 357; Japan, 393 ; Mid¬ 
dle Atlantic States, 70 ; New Eng¬ 
land, 50-51 ; Russia, 335 ; Southern 
States, 94; Switzerland, 353. 

Cottonseed oil. 95. 

Council Bluffs (Iowa) (koun'sll-), 
128. 

Covington (Ivy.) (kuv'Ing-tun), 128. 

Crater Lake (kra'ter-), 159-160. 

Crete (kret), 371. 

Cripple Creek (Colo.) (krip'p’l krek), 
137. 

Cuba (ku'ba), 87, 167-170 ; agricul¬ 
ture, 169 ; cities, 170 ; climate, 167 ; 
minerals, 169 ; size, 167 ; timber, 
169 ; transportation, 169-170, 434, 
446. 

Cuzco (koos'ko), 266, 273, 276. 

Cyclonic storms (si-klon'Ik-), 234- 
238, 288. 

Czechoslovakia. 362, 364, 365. 


D 

Dairying, statistics of, in United 
States, 206. See also “ dairying ” 
under names of countries. 

Dallas (Tex.) (dal'las), 100. 

Damascus (da-mas'kus), 380, 383. 

Danube River (dan'ub-), 281, 362, 
364. 

Danville (Va.) (dan'vil), 62, 79, 94. 

Dardanelles (dar'da-nelz'), 366. 

Darling River (dar'ling-), 424. 

Dates, in Africa, 412 ; Arabia, 383 ; 
Arizona, 147 ; Barbary States, 414 ; 
Egypt, 412; Spanish peninsula, 
321. 

Davenport (Iowa) (dav'en-port), 127. 

Dawson City (da'siin-), 167, 184. 

Dayton (O.) (da'tun), 128. 

Dead Sea. 378, 380. 

Delagoa Bay (del'a-go'a-), 418. 

Delaware (del'a-war), 63, 69. 

Delaware Bay, 70. 

Delaware River, 59. 

Delaware Water Gap, 59. 

Delhi (del'hi), 400. 

Deltas, 10, 411. 

Denmark (den'mark), 324, 325, 328- 
329 ; agriculture, 328 ; colonies, 
329 ; commerce, 328, 329 ; dairy¬ 
ing, 328 ; fishing, 328 ; government, 
324 ; hogs, 328 ; horses, 328 ; manu¬ 
facturing, 329 ; people, 324 ; rea¬ 
sons for independence, 325 ; sheep, 
328 ; surface features, 325, 428. 


Denver (Colo.) (den'ver), 143, 144, 
149, 150-151. 

Deserts, 250 ; in Africa, 406, 408 ; 
Atacama, 263, 279 ; in Australia, 
422, 424 ; Gobi, 377 ; in India and 
Baluchistan, 397; Sahara, 406, 408, 
409-410; western United States, 
134-135. 

Des Moines (Iowa) (de moin'), 128. 

Detroit (Mich.) (de-troit'), 118, 124- 
125. 

Diamonds. Brazil, 269 ; South Africa, 
417-418. See also Precious stones. 

District of Columbia, 78. 

Douglas (Ariz.) (dug'las), 138. 

Douglas Island, 166. 

Douro (do'roo), 324. 

Dover (N. H.) (do'ver), 51. 

Dover, Strait of, 318. 

Dresden (drez'den), 343. 347, 350. 

Dry farming, 112. 

Dublin (dub'lin). 301-302. 

Dubuque (du-buk'), 127. 

Duluth (Minn.) (du-looth'), 110, 115, 
117, 121. 

Dundee (dun-de'), 301. 

Dunedin (dun-e'dln), 431. 

Durango (doo-ran'go), 194. 

Durban (dur'Mn or dur'ban), 418. 

Durham (N. C.) (duPam), 89, 95. 

Dutch Guiana. 272. 

Dyewoods, Brazil, 268 ; Central 
America, 196; Paraguay, 272; 
Venezuela, 272. 

E 

Earth, animals, 248-253 ; axis, 218 ; 
circumference, 218 ; diameter, 218 ; 
gravitation, 218-219 ; motions of, 
218 ; orbit, 218 ; peoples, 253-257 ; 
plants, 248-253 ; zones, 220-221. 

Earthquakes, 8; Caracas, Venezuela, 
272; Grecian Archipelago, 370- 
371; Iceland, 329; Japan, 394; 
South America, 259 ; West Indies, 
197. 

East Indies (-in'd£z), 308, 431. 

East Livermore (Me.) (-llv'er-mor), 
50. 

East Millinocket (Me.) (-mil-lin- 
ock'et), 50. 

Eastport (Me.), 47. 

Ebony, 169, 174, 420. 

Ebro River (a'brS), 320. 

Ecuador (ek'wa-doP or ek'-), 265, 
272. 275. 

Edinburgh (ed'n-bur-o), 291, 298, 
301, 332. 

Egypt (e'jipt), 295, 380, 409, 410- 
414 ; agriculture, 412 ; cities, 413- 
414 ; climate, 410-411 ; govern¬ 
ment, 413 ; history, 412-413 ; irri¬ 
gation, 413 ; Nile River and impor¬ 
tance of, 411-412 ; Suez Canal, 
413, 434. 

Egyptian Sudan (e-jip'slian soo' 
dan'), 409, 411, 419.' 

Elba (el'ba), 356. 

Elberfeld (el'ber-felt'), 348. 








INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


465 


Elbe River (elb-), 346, 347, 365. 

Elbruz, Mt. (-el'brooz'), 331. 

Elizabeth (N. J.) (£-liz'a-beth), 72. 

Elmira (N. Y.) (el-mi'ra), 69. 

El Paso (Tex.) (el pa'sS), 100. 

Enfield Falls (en'feld-), 14. 

England (Tn'gland), 30-31, 281, 286, 
288, 289, 291, 294, 295, 296. 298, 
299, 301, 304, 309, 310, 311, 313, 
314, 318, 328, 428, 434. See British 
Isles. 

Equator, 222. 

Equatorial Drift, 241-242. 

Erie (Pa.) (e'ri), 69, 78. 

Erie Canal, 70, 71, 74, 75, 185. 

Erie, Lake, 110. 

Eritrea (&'r£-tra'a), 420. 

Eskimos (Ss'kl-moz), 26, 188, 219, 
248, 251. 

Essen (es'sen) ,^348. 

Esthonia (Ss-th5'ni-d), 336. 

Euphrates River (u-fra'tez-),378,381. 

Eurasia (u-dPsln-a), 281. 

Europe (u'rup), 281-371 ; climate, 
286 ; coal beds, 285 ; coast line, 
285-286 ; countries of, 288-289 ; 
crops, 286-287 ; Ice Age, 285 ; im¬ 
migrants from, in United States, 
34-36 ; inland seas, 288; moun¬ 
tains, 281 ; population, 286 ; rain¬ 
fall, 287-288 ; surface features, 
281-285, 301, 307, 310, 311, 422. 
See also under various countries 
of Europe. 

Evanston (HI.) (€v'cmz-tun), 124. 

Evansville (Ind.) (ev'ans-vil), 129. 

Everest, Mt. (-ev'er-est), 376. 

Everett (Wash.) (ev'er-et), 140, 155. 

F 

Falkland Islands (fakland-), 279. 

Fall Line, 59, 77, 83. 

Fall River (Mass.), 51, 52. 

Fargo (N. D.) (far'go), 110. 

Faroe Islands (fa'ro-), 329. 

Fez, 416. 

Fiber products, Mexico, 192, 194. 

Figs, in Arizona, 147 ; Barbary 
States, 414 ; California, 142, 145, 
146; Egypt, 412 ; southern Eu¬ 
rope, 287 ; Spanish peninsula, 321; 
Turkey, 367. 

Fiji Islands (fe'je-), 432. 

Findlay (O.) (flnd'la), 116. 

Finland (fln'land), 281, 331,335, 336. 

Finland, Gulf of, 335. 

Fisheries, cod, 46, 140, 165, 182, 293, 
326 ; haddock, 293 ; halibut, 46, 
140 ; herring, 47, 293 ; lobster, 47 ; 
mackerel, 46 ; oyster, 47, 61-62, 
85, 140, 293; salmon, 141, 165, 182, 
293; shad, 61; shellfish in New Eng¬ 
land, 47 ; sponge,85,198,356,370. 

Fitchburg (Mass.) (ficli'burg), 52. 

Fiume (f<5-oo'ma), 361, 365. 

Flanders (fl&n'derz), 309. 

Flax, in Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
Belgium, 309 ; Central States, 111 ; 
Ireland, 297 ; Italy, 356; The 


Netherlands, 306 ; Ontario, 184; 
use of, for linen, and description 
of method of preparation, 297. 

Flood-plains, Mississippi River, 84, 
97-98 ; China, 388; Nile River, 
411-412. 

Florence (tior'ens), 360. 

Florida (floPi-da), 83, 84, 85, 90, 92, 
100, 105, 288, 388. 

Flour Mills, in Australia, 429 ; Aus¬ 
tria and Hungary, 364 ; Brazil, 269 ; 
Budapest, 365 ; Minneapolis, 126- 
127 ; Rochester, 70 ; Russia, 335, 
336 ; Spokane, 151 ; Winnipeg, 183. 

Forest products, in Central America, 
196; Central States, 119; East 
Indies, 431 ; Germany, 344 ; Maine, 
49-50; Mexico, 191-192; New 
England, 42 ; Norway, 326 ; South¬ 
ern States, 93-94. 

Forests. See Trees. 

Formosa (for-mo'sa), 391, 393. 

Fort Worth (Tex.), 100. 

France (frans), 286, 288, 289, 309, 
311-319; agriculture, 313-314; 
area, 434; cities, 315-319 ; colo¬ 
nies, 319 ; geographical position, 
311; government, 313; manufac¬ 
turing, 314-315; mining,314; naval 
power, 319; population, 311-313, 
434 ; settlements of, in America, 
30 ; surface features, 313, 364, 445, 
446. 

Frankfurt (friink'foort), 348. 

Fredericton (N. B.), 181. 

French Guiana (-g£-a'na), 272. 

French Indo-China, 395, 396. 

Fresno (Cal.) (frez'no), 142. 

Fruits, in Arabia, 383 ; Argentina, 
270 ; Arizona, 147 ; Australia, 428 ; 
Bahamas, 198; Belgium, 309; 
Brazil, 268, 269 ; California, 142- 
143, 145-146; Central America, 
197 ; Ceylon, 401 ; Chile, 279 ; 
Colombia, 274 ; Cuba and Porto 
Rico, 169 ; Egypt, 412 ; Europe, 
287 ; France, 314 ; Great Lake 
region, 110 ; Greece, 370 ; Hawaiian 
Islands, 173; Italy, 356, 358; Ja¬ 
maica, 107 ; Mexico, 192, 193; 
Middle Atlantic States, 62-63 ; 
Northwestern States, 141 ; On¬ 
tario, 184 ; Pacific coast of United 
States, 142 ; Pacific islands, 432 ; 
Philippine Islands, 176; principal 
regions for production, in United 
States, 204; Russia in Asia, 385 ; 
Servia, 366 ; Southern States, 89- 
90; tropical Andean countries, 
273 ; Uruguay, 271 ; Venezuela, 
272 ; Western States, 142 ; West 
Indies, 197, 198. 

Furs, 333. 

Fustic, 169, 196. 

G 

Galdpagos Islands (ga-la'pa-gos-), 
279. 

Galilee, Sea of (-gal't-le), 380. 


Galveston (Tex.) (gal'v6s-tun), 101, 
209. 

Ganges (g&n'jez), 397, 398, 400, 
401. 

Garonne (ga'ron'), 318. 

Geneva (je-ne'va), 353. 

Geneva, Lake, 290, 319, 353. 

Genoa (jen'6-a), 358. 360. 

Georgia (jor'jl-a), 85, 87, 91, 92, 94. 

Germany (jfir'ma-ni), 281, 285, 286, 
289, 314, 316, 325, 336, 337-350; 
position and advantages, 337 ; 
formation of the former German 
Empire, 337 ; recent changes in 
government, 337 ; some of the 
losses from the war, 337 ; prepara¬ 
tion for war, 339 ; surface features, 
339; drainage, climate, 341 ; agri¬ 
culture, rainfall, lumbering, 342; 
livestock, mining, manufacturing, 
343-344 ; rapid advance and rea¬ 
sons for, 345 ; cities, 346-349, 364, 
446. 

Geysers, 157, 158, 329, 430. 

Ghent (gent), 311. 

Gibraltar (ji-bral'ter), 289, 323, 324. 

Gila River (he'la-), 146. 

Glacier (glas'sher or glas'l-er), Alas¬ 
kan, 164 ; in early New England, 
41-42 ; the Greenland Glacier, 11- 
12 ; in New Zealand, 430; in 
Switzerland, 351. 

Glasgow (glas'ko or -go), 291, 296, 
298, 299, 301. 

Glass making, in Austria and Hun¬ 
gary, 364; Belgium, 310, 311; 
Italy, 357 ; Middle Atlantic States, 
69. 

Gloucester (Mass.) (glos'tSr), 45, 46, 
327. 

Goats, in Arabia, 383 ; Austria and 
Hungary, 363 ; Denmark, 328 ; 
Egypt, 412 ; Greece, 370 ; Italy, 
356 ; Persia, 384 ; South Africa, 
417 ; Spain, 321 ; Western States, 
147. 

Gobi, Desert of (-go'be'), 377, 388. 

Gold, in Abyssinia, 420 ; Alaska, 166 ; 
Argentina, 271 ; Australia, 426, 
428 ; Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
Belgian Congo, 421 ; Black Hills, 
119 ; Bolivia, 276 ; Brazil, 269 ; 
California, 133, 138 ; Canada, 184 ; 
Central America, 197 ; Chile, 278 ; 
China, 390 ; Colombia, 274 ; Colo¬ 
rado, 137 ; Comstock Lode, Vir¬ 
ginia City, 137 ; East Indies, 431 ; 
Ecuador, 275 ; geographic distribu¬ 
tion of, 442, 443 ; Guiana, 272 ; 
Japan, 393; Mexico, 193, 194 ; 
Montana, 137, 138 ; Nevada, 137 ; 
New Zealand, 430 ; Peru, 275; 
Russia, 334 ; Siberia, 385 ; South 
Africa, 417 ; Southern States, 92 ; 
tropical Andean countries, 273; 
Venezuela, 272 ; Western States, 
133, 134, 136, 137, 138. 

Goldfield (Nev.), 137. 

Gothenburg (got'en-burg), 328. 

Granada (gra-na'da), 322, 324. 







466 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Grand Canon (-kan'yun-) of the Colo¬ 
rado, 157, 169. 

Grand Rapids (Midi.), 119. 

Granite, 44-45, 91, 294, 397. 
Grape-fruit, 90, 147. 

Grapes, in Argentina, 270; Barbary 
States, 414 ; California, 145, 146 ; 
Central States, 110; France, 313- 
314 ; Germany, 343 ; Greece, 370 ; 
Italy, 356 ; Malaga, 323 ; Mexico, 
192 ; Middle Atlantic States, 63 ; 
New York State, 63 ; Ontario, 184 ; 
Russia, 333; Serbia, 366; South 
Africa, 417 ; Southern States, 89, 
90 ; Southwestern Asia, 378 ; Spain 
and Portugal, 321 ; Switzerland, 
351 ; Western States, 142. 
Graphite, 67, 334. 

Grays Harbor (Wash.), 156. 

Great Barrier Reef, 422. 

Great Basin, 134, 135. 

Great Britain (-brlt’n), 289-304, 315, 

319, 322, 324, 328, 335, 337, 364, 
417, 446. See British Isles. 

Great Falls (Mont.), 151. 

Great Lakes, 13, 60, 106, 115, 120- 
121, 209 ; cities on, 121-125. 

Great Plains, 112, 133, 253. 

Great Salt Lake, 135, 145. 

Greater Antilles (-an-til'lez), 197. 
Greece (gres), 288, 366, 368, 369-371 ; 
chief city, 370 ; climate, 369 ; early 
and modern history, 369; govern¬ 
ment, 369 ; industries and products, 
370; mining, 370; rainfall, 369; 
surface features, 369. 

Greeley (Colo.) (gre'll), 144. 
Greenland (gren'land), 11, 325, 188, 
329. 

Green Mountains, 41, 55. 

Greenville (S. C.) (gren'vll), 94. 
Grimsby (grlmz'bi), 294. 
Guadalquivir (ga'dal-kwiv'er-) River, 

320. 

Guadeloupe (ga-da-loop'), 198. 

Guam (gwam), 173. 

Guatemala (ga/te-ma'la), 196, 197. 
Guayaquil (gwi'a-kel'), 275. 
Guernsey (gern'zl), Isle of, 292. 
Guiana (ge-a'na), 272. 

Guinea, Gulf of, 324. 

Gulf Stream, 42, 60, 242. 

Guthrie (Okla.) (gutli'rl), 102. 


H 

Hague (hag), 308, 311. 

Haiti (ha'ti), 197-198. 

Halifax (hal'i-faks), 187-188. 

Halle (hal'le), 347, 350. 

Hamburg (ham'burg), 337, 346, 347. 
Hamilton (Bermuda) (hftm'il-tun), 
199. 

Hamilton (Canada), 188. 
Hammerfest (ham'mer-fest'), 327, 
331. 

Hankau (han'kou'), 391. 

Harrisburg (Pa.) (li&r'ris-burg), 69. 
Hartford (Conn.) (hart'ferd), 52. 
Havana (ha-van'a), 169, 170. 


Haverhill (Mass.) (ha'ver-il), 51. 

Havre (ha'vSr), 315, 318. 

Hawaiian Islands (ha-wi'yan-), 87, 
171-173, 432 ; climate, 171 ; geo¬ 
graphical position, 171 ; people, 
172 ; products, 173 ; value to 
United States, 173. 

Hay, in Australia, 428; Central 
States, 107, 111 ; Germany, 342 ; 
Oregon and Washington, 141 ; 
Russia, 333 ; Southern States, 90 ; 
states which lead in production of, 
205. 

Hebrides (lieb'ri-dez), 289. 

Hebron (he'brun), 378, 380. 

Hejas (hej-az'), 378, 383. 

Hekla. Mt. (-hek'la), 329. 

Helena (Mont.) (liel'e-na), 137. 

Helsingfors (liel'slng-fors'), 336. 

Hemp, in Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
Belgium, 309 ; Italy, 356 ; Philip¬ 
pine Islands, 176; Russia in Asia, 
385. 

Heniquen (he-ne'ken), 192.. 

Herculaneum (her'ku-la'ne-um), 358. 

High Point (N. C.), 93-94. 

Hilo (he'lo), 173. 

Himalaya Mountains (hl-ma'lfi-ya-), 
376, 397. 

Hoang-ho River (hwang'-ho'-), 388, 
390. 

Hoboken (N. J.) (ho'bo-ken), 69, 72. 

Hogs, in Australia, 428 ; Denmark, 
328 ; Germany, 343 ; Iowa, 111 ; 
The Netherlands, 306 ; Serbia, 366 ; 
Southern States, 90 ; states leading 
in production of, 205. 

Holland (hSl'and), 305, 307, 308, 310, 
337, 339. 

Holy Land, 378-381 ; climate, 380 ; 
history, 380 ; surface features, 
380. 

Holyoke (Mass.) (hol'yok), 50. 

Honduras (hon-doo'ras), 196. 

Hongkong (liong'kSng), 391. 

Honolulu (ho'no-loo'loo), 173. 

Hood, Mt., 134. 

Hops, British Isles, 292 ; Central 
States, 111 ; Germany, 343 ; West¬ 
ern States, 142. 

Horse latitudes, 229, 262. 

Horses, in Arabia, 383; Belgium, 
309 ; British Isles, 292, 297 ; Cen¬ 
tral States, 110, 111 ; Denmark, 
328; Egypt, 412 ; Illinois, 206 ; 
Ireland, 297 ; Kentucky, 111 ; The 
Netherlands, 306 ; Ontario, 184; 
Russia, 333 ; Russia in Asia, 385; 
Southern States, 90 ; states which 
lead in production of, 206. 

Houghton (Mich.) (ho'tun), 118. 

Honshu (hon'shoO), 391. 

Houston (Tex.) (lius'tun), 101. 

Howland Island, 174. 

Hudson Bay (hud's’n-), 185. 

Hudson River, 60, 71, 348-349. 

Hull, 294, 298, 301. 

Hungary, 364. 

Huntsville (Ala.), 95. 

Huron, Lake (-hu'run), 110, 121. 


I 

Iceland (Is'land), 325, 329. 

Idaho (I'da-ho), 134, 138, 152. 

Illinois (il'li-noi' or il'll-noiz'), 64, 
124. 

Illinois River, 121. 

Indiana (In'dl-an'a), 109, 115, 116, 
120, 129. 

Indianapolis (in'di-an-a'po-lls), 129. 

Indian Empire (in'dl-an- or Ind'- 
yan-), 295, 302, 319. 396-401 ; agri¬ 
culture, 399 ; cities, 400-401 ; cli¬ 
mate, 397 ; divisions, 396 ; famines 
and plagues, 400 ; farm products, 
399 ; forest products, 399 ; govern¬ 
ment, 397; irrigation, 400; min¬ 
erals, 399 ; peoples, races, and re¬ 
ligion, 397, 398 ; rainfall, 397 ; 
surface features, 397, 434. 

Indian Ocean, 403. 

Indians, 26-28, 156-157, 254, 265- 
266. 

Indigo, 192, 197. 

Indo-China (m'do-chi'na), 319, 395- 

396. 

Indus River (In'dus-), 397, 401. 

Iowa (i'6-wa), 111, 114, 115, 128. 

Iquique (e-ke'ka), 279. 

Irawadi River, 401. 

Ireland (Ir'land), 288, 289, 291, 297- 
298, 299 ; agriculture, 297 ; cities, 
301-302 ; manufacturing, 297; min¬ 
ing, 297 ; population, 297-298, 304, 
329, 422. 

Irkutsk (ir-kootsk'), 386. 

Iron manufactures, in Belgium, 310 ; 
Great Britain, 296; Middle At¬ 
lantic States, 67-69 ; Prague, 364 ; 
Russia, 335; Southern States, 
94. 

Iron ore, in Argentina, 271 ; Aus¬ 
tralia, 429 ; Austria and Hungary, 
364; Belgium, 309, 310; Brazil, 
269; British Isles, 294; Central 
States, 116-118; Colorado, 137; 
Cuba, 169; France, 314; Germany, 
343 ; Greece, 370 ; India, 399 ; 
Japan,. 393; Mexico, 194; Middle 
Atlantic States, 66-67 ; The Neth¬ 
erlands, 307 ; Russia, 334 ; South 
Africa, 417 ; Southern States, 91 ; 
Spanish peninsula, 321 ; Sweden, 
328; United States, 37, 38, 205, 
209 ; Western States, 137 ; world 
distribution of, 442, 443. 

Irrigation in United States, 112, 134, 
135, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 
156, 203, 205. See subdivision 
under names of countries. 

Irtish River, 373. 

Ishpeming (Mich.) (Ish'p^-mlng), 
116. 

Italy (It'a-li), 288, 289. 354-361; agri¬ 
culture, 355-356 ; area, 354 ; cities, 
357-361; climate, 355 ; fishing, 356 ; 
government, 354-355 ; irrigation, 
355-356 ; lakes, 355 ; manufactur¬ 
ing, 356-357 ; mining, 356 ; people, 
354 ; rainfall, 355 ; rivers, 355; 




467 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


surface features, 355; tempera¬ 
ture, 355, 434, 445, 446. 

Ithaca (N. Y.) (ith'a-ka), 75, 

Ivory, 188, 410, 420, 421. 

J 

Jacksonville (Fla.) (j&k'sun-vll), 85, 
92. 

Jaffa (ya'fa), 381. 

Jamaica (ja-ma'ka), 197-198. 

James River (jamz-), 59, 79. 

Jamestown (N. Y.) (jamz'toun), 70. 

Japanese Current (jap'a-nez'- or 
nes'-), 243. 

Japanese Empire, 315. 391-395 ; agri¬ 
culture, 393 ; area, 391 ; cities, 
395; fishing, 393; government, 

392 ; lumbering, 393 ; manufactur¬ 
ing, 393 ; mining, 393 ; parts of 
empire, 391 ; people, 392 ; popula¬ 
tion, 391 ; recent progress, 392- 

393 ; surface features, 393, 446. 

Java (ja'va), 308, 431. 

Jefferson City (Mo.) (jef'fer-sun-), 
128. 

Jersey City (N. J.) (jgr'zT-), 69, 72, 
73. 

Jersey, Isle of (-jer'zl), 292. 

Jerusalem (je-ru'sa-lem), 381. 

Johannesburg (yo-han'nes-burg), 

417, 418. 

Joplin (Mo.) (jop'lin), 119. 

Jordan River (jor'dan-), 380. 

Juan Fernandez, Island of (-hoo-an' 
fer-nan'deth), 279. 

Jugoslavia (yu'go-sla'vi-a), 362, 363, 
365. 

Juneau (ju'no'), 166, 167, 181. 

Jungles, Africa, 406, 408 ; Amazon 
River, 267-268 ; India, 399. 

Jura Mountains (ju'ra-), 350. 

Jutland (jut'land), 326. 

K 

Kabul (ka'bul), 384. 

Kansas (kan'zas), 64, 106, 108, 109, 
112, 114, 115, 116, 119. 

Kansas City (Kan.), 127. 

Kansas City (Mo.), 127. 

Katahdin, Mt. (-ka-ta'dm), 41, 42, 
44. 

Kennebec River (ken'ne-bek'-), 49. 

Kentucky (ken-tuk'I), 89, 103, 105, 
110, 111, 115, 128. 

Key West (Fla.), 95. 

Khartum (kar'toom'), 413. 

Khedive, 413. 

Khiva (ice'va), 385. 

Kiau Chau (kyou'cho'), 392. 

Kief (ke'yef), 336. 

Kiel Canal (kel), 348, 350. 

Kimberley (kim'ber-ll), 417, 418. 

Kingston (Canada) (klngz'tun), 188. 

Kingston (Jamaica), 197. 

Klondike (klon'dik), 166, 184. 

Knoxville (Tenn.) (noks'vll), 91-92, 
94, 99. 

Konigsberg (ke'mGS-berG), 339. 


Korea (ko-re'a), 392, 395. 

Krakatoa (kra'ka-ta'o) Island and 
volcano, 433. 

Krefeld (kra'feit), 348. 

Kurile Islands (koo'ril-), 391. 

Kyoto (kyo'tft), 395. 


L 


Labrador (lab'ra-dor'), 180, 286, 287, 
289. 


Labrador Current, 42, 60, 

243. 


181, 185, 


Lace making, 311, 357. 

Lachine Rapids (la-slien'-), 185-186. 
La Crosse (Wis.) (la kr6s'), 127. 
Ladrones (la-dronz'), 173. 

La Paz (la paz' or pas'), 278. 
Lapland (l&p'land), 325, 331. 

La Plata (la pla'ta), 271. 

Laramie (Wyo.) (lar'a-me), 144. 
Latitude and longitude, 221-224. 
Latvia. 336. 

Lawrence (Mass.) (lar'ens), 51. 

Lead, in Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
Belgium, 309 ; British Isles, 294 ; 
Canada, 184 ; Central States, 119 ; 
Colorado, 137 ; Germany, 343; 
Greece, 370; Idaho, 138; Mexico, 
194 ; Montana, 137 ; Spanish pen¬ 
insula, 321 ; Utah, 138 ; Western 
States, 136, 137, 138. 

Leadville (Col.) (led'vil), 137, 149. 
Leeds (ledz), 295, 298. 

Leicester (les'ter), 295. 

Leipzig (lip'sik), 346-347, 350. 

Leith (leth), 301. 

Lemons, in Arizona, 147 ; California, 
142, 145 ; Egypt, 412 ; Italy, 356 ; 
Southern Europe, 287 ; Southern 
States, 90 ; Spanish peninsula, 321. 
Lena River (le'na-), Fig. 455. 
Leopoldville (le'6-pold-vil), 403, 419. 
Lesser Antilles, 197, 198. 

Lewiston (Idaho) (lu'is-tun), 142. 
Lewiston (Me.), 51. 

Liberia (li-be'ri-a), 420. 

Liechtenstein (leu'ten-stin), 365. 
Liege (le-azli'), 311. 

Lignite, 5, 91, 285. 

Lille (lei), 314. 

Lima (le'ma), 276. 

Limoges (le'mozh'), 317, 319. 

Lincoln (Neb.) (lln'kun), 125, 128. 
Linen manufacture, 297, 310, 335. 
Lisbon (liz'bun), 324. 

Lithuania (lith'u-a'ni-a), 336. 

Little Rock (Ark.), 93, 100. 
Liverpool (liv'er-pool), 298, 299, 300, 
301. 

Llama (la'ma), 265, 266, 275, 277. 
Llanos (la'noz), 249, 262, 272, 274. 
Lockport (N. Y.), 75. 

Lodz (lddz), 336. 

Lofoden Islands (lo-fo'ten-), 326. 
Logwood, 192, 196. 

Loire River (lwar-), 316, 319. 

London (Canada) (lun'dun), 188. 
London (Eng.), 294, 298, 299-300. 
301. 


Los Angeles (Cal.) (16s an'gel-6s or 
los dn'jel-es), 133, 146, 154, 323. 

Louisiana (loo'e-z£-a'na or -an'a), 87, 
89, 91, 92. 

Louisville (Ivy.) (loo'Is-vll or loo'I- 
vil), 109, 110, 128-129. 

Lourengo Marquez (lo-ren's6 mar'- 
kes), 418. 

Lowell (Mass.) (lo'el), 51, 62. 

Lucerne (loo-sern'), 353. 

Lucerne. Lake, 353. 

Lucknow (luk'nou'), 401. 

Lumbering, 42-44, 204. See “Forest 
products” and subdivisions under 
names of countries, etc. 

Luxemburg (luks'em-burg), 311. 

Luzon (loo-zon'), 174, 177. 

Lynchburg (Ya.) (llnch'burg), 62, 
79. 

Lynn (Mass.) (lln), 51. 

Lyon (le'ou'), 315, 318. 

M 

Mackenzie River (ma-ken'zl-), 376. 

Macon (Ga.) (ma'kun), 93. 

Madagascar (mad'a-gas'kar), 319, 
421. 

Madeira Islands (ma-de'ra-), 324, 
421. 

Madison (Wis.) (mad'l-sun), 125. 

Madras (ma-dras'), 401. 

Madrid (ma-drld'), 273, 322. 

Magdeburg (maoMe-boorg'), 347, 350. 

Magellan, Straits of (-ma-jelOan), 
270. 

Mahogany. 169, 192, 196. 

Main River (man- or min-), 348. 

Maine, 41, 42, 45, 49, 50, 54, 55, 326. 

Malaga (mal'a-ga), 323. 

Malay Peninsuia (ma-la'-). 395-396. 

Malay States, 396. 

Malden (Mass.) (mal'dun), 54. 

Malta (mal'ta), 361. 

Manaos (ina-na'oosh), 267. 

Manchester (Eng.) (man'ches-ter), 
296, 298, 301. 

Manchester (N. H.), 51, 54. 

Mandalay (man'da-la), 401. 

Mandioca (man'de-6'ka), 268. 

Manhattan Island (man-hat'tan-), 73. 

Manila (ma-nll'a), 176, 177, 431, 433. 

Manitoba (man'I-to'ba), 180, 183. 

Manufacturing, 208-209, 211, 443- 
445. See also “manufacturing” 
under names of countries, etc. 

Maracaibo, Lake (-ma/ra-kl'bo), 272. 

Marble, in Algeria, 414; Belgium, 
310 ; Carrara, 356 ; Ireland, 297 ; 
New England States, 44, 45 ; South¬ 
ern States, 91 ; Vermont, 45. 

Marcus Island (mar'kus-), 174. 

Marquette (Mich.) (mar-ket'), 117. 

Marseille (mar-sal' or mar'si'y 1 ), 318, 
319. 

Martha's Vineyard (Mass.), 55. 

Martinique (mar'tl-nek'), 198. 

Maryland (mer'I-land or ma'rl-land), 
62, 63, 64, 69, 78. 

Maskat (mas-kat'), 383. 







468 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Massachusetts (mas'sa-chu'sets), 41, 
45. 50. 51, 52. 53, 54, 327. 

Matanzas (ma-tan'zas), 170. 

Mauna Loa (mou'na lo'a), 171. 
Mauritius (ma-rish'I-us), 421. 
McKinley, Mt. (-ma-kln'li), 164. 
Mecca (mek'ka), 383. 

Medina (me-di'na), 383. 
Mediterranean (med'I-ter-ra'n£-an), 
286, 288, 289, 314. 316, 318, 319. 
321, 323, 324. 354. 355, 358, 365, 
369, 377, 381. 412. 

Melbourne (mel'burn), 429. 433. 
Memphis (Tenn.) (mem'fis),85,93,98. 
Merced River (mer-sed'-), 159. 
Meriden (Conn.) (merT-den), 52. 
Merrimac River (merfri-mak-), 61. 
Mescal (mas-kal'), 192. 

Mesopotamia (mes'o-po-ta'ml-a), 378, 
381, 401. 

Metz (metz), 337. 339. 

Mexico (meks'I-ko), 190-196 ; agri¬ 
culture, 192-193 ; cities, 194-196 ; 
climate, 191 ; forest products. 191— 

192 ; government, 190; history, 
190 ; manufacturing, 194 ; mining. 

193 ;. population, 201 ; surface 
features, 190, 434. 446. 

Mexico City. 190. 195-196. 

Mexico. Gulf of, 84, 91. 197. 

Michigan (mlsh'I-gan), 103, 110, 116, 
117, 118, 119, 120, 124, 125. 
Michigan. Lake, 110. 124. 

Middle Atlantic States. 56-81 ; agri¬ 
culture, 62-63 ; cities, 72-79; com¬ 
merce, 70-72 ; dairying, 62 ; farm¬ 
ing, 62-63 ; fishing. 61-62 ; fruits 
and vegetables, 62-63 ; lumbering, 
61 ; manufacturing, 67-70 ; min¬ 
ing, 63-67. 

Midway Islands (mld'wa'-), 174. 
Milan (mll'an or ml-lan'), 355, 360. 
Millet, in Egypt, 412 ; French Indo- 
China, 396 ; India, 399 ; Siam. 396. 
Milwaukee (Wis.) (mil-wa'ke). Ill, 
123. 124. 

Mindanao (men'da-na'6), 174. 
Minerals and mining. 4-8, 37-38. 
136-139. 204-205. See subdivisions 
under names of countries, etc. 
Minneapolis (Minn.) (mln'ne-ap'o- 
lis), 110, 115, 126-127. 

Minnesota (min'ne-so'ta), 105, 106, 
109. 115, 117, 119. 126. 

Miquelon (me'k’ldx), 180. 

Mississippi River (mls'ls-slp'pi-), 9- I 
10, 96, 97, 115, 121 ; cities on. 125- 
127, 342, 403, 422. 

Mississippi Valley, 9-10, 37. 

Missouri (mls-soo'r! or miz-zbo'ri), 
103, 110, 114, 116, 119, 120. 
Missouri River, 121, 146 ; cities on. 
127-128. 

Mitchell, Mt.. 83. 

Mobile (Ala.) (mo-bel'), 85, 93, 99- 

100 . 

Mocha (mS'ka), 383. 

Mohawk River (mofiiak-), 59. 
Molasses, 88, 272. 

Monaco (mon'a-ko), 313, 319. 


Monadnock. Mt. (-mo-nSd'nok), 41. 

Mongolia (mon-go'll-a), 388. 

Monongahela River (mo-n5n'ga- 
he'la-), 78. 

Monrovia (inon-ro'vl-a), 420. 

Monsoons. 238-239. 

Montana (mon-ta'na), 137, 138, 147. 

Montenegro (mon'ta-na'gro), 366. 

Montevideo (mon'ta-ve-da'o), 271. 

Montgomery (Ala.) (inont-gum'er-i), 
93. 

Montreal (mont're-al'), 179, 181, 
185-186, 355. 

Morocco (mo-rok'ko), 324, 409. 414, 
415. 

Moscow (mbs'ko), 332. 335. 

Mount Desert Island. 55. 

Muir Glacier (mur'-), 164. 

Mules, in Kentucky, 111 ; Southern 
States, 90 ; Spain. 321. 

Munich (mu'nik), 347, 350. 

Murray River (mur'd-), 424. 

N 

Nagoya (na'go-ya), 395. 

Nantucket (Mass.) (n5n-tuk'gt), 55. 

Naples (na'p'lz). 357-358. 

Naples. Bay of, 357. 

Nashua (X. H.) (nask'u-a), 51. 

Nashville (Tenn.) (nashMl), 99. 

Nassau (nas'sa), 198. 

Natal (na-tal'j, 417, 418. 

Natchez (Miss.) (nach'ez), 100. 

Natural gas, in Central States, 116 ; 
description of formation and of 
method of obtaining, 66 ; leader¬ 
ship of United States in production 
of, 443 ; Middle Atlantic States, 
66 ; Southern States, 91. 

Nazareth (naz'a-reth), 381. 

Nebraska (ne-bras'ka), 106, 108, 112, 
114. 

Negroes, 34, 253, 408. 

Nepal (ne-pal'), 396. 

Netherlands (neth'er-landz), 305- 
308 ; agriculture, 396 ; cities, 308 ; 
colonies, 308, 431 ; commerce, 307- 
308; dairying, 306 ; dikes, 305- 
306 fishing, 306-307 ; manufac¬ 
turing, 307 ; population, 306 ; sur¬ 
face features, 305 ; waterways, 310 ; 
windmills, 307, 446. 

Nevada (n£-va'da), 134. 135,137,139. 

Newark (X. J.) (nu'erk), 69, 72. 

New Bedford (Mass.) (-bed'ferd). 51, 
52. 

New Brunswick (X. J.) (-brunz'wlk), 
180, 181. 

New Caledonia (-kal'e-don'i-a). 432. 

New England States (-In'glcmd-), 
41-56 ; agriculture, 47-49 ; climate, 
42 ; coast line, 42 ; commerce, 52- 
53 ; dairying, 48; farming, 47-49 ; 
fishing, 45-47 ; lumbering, 42-44 ; 
manufacturing, 49-52 ; mountains, 

41 ; quarrying, 44-45 ; surface, 41- 

42 ; truck farming, 48; work of 
Great Glacier in, 41-42, 281, 291, 
292, 293, 295, 296. 


Newfoundland (nu'fund-land), 180, 

293. 

New Guinea (-gin'£), 345, 422, 431. 
New Hampshire (-hamp'shlr), 41, 42, 
54, 55. 

New Haven (Conn.) (-ha'v’n), 52, 
54. 

New Jersey (-jer'zl), 60, 63, 66, 67, 
69, 70. 

New Mexico (-meks'I-ko), 133, 138, 
156-157, 289. 

New Orleans (La.) (-6r'l£-anz), 88, 
89, 95, 96-98, 209. 

Newport (Ivy.) (nu'port), 128. 
Newport (R. I.), 55. 

Newport News (Va.), 60, 79. 

New South Wales (-walz), 426, 428, 
429, 430. 

New York Bay (nu' y6rk'-), 70. 

New York City (X. Y.), 69, 72-74, 
209, 299. 300, 349, 371. 

New York State. 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 
64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75. 
119. 308. 

New Zealand. Dominion of (-ze'- 
land), 422, 430, 433. 

Niagara Falls (nl-ag'a-ra-), 60. 75, 
418. 

Niagara Falls, city of (X. Y.), 75. 
Nicaragua (ne'ka-ra'gwa or nik'a-), 
196. 

Nigeria (ni-je'rl-a), 419. 

Niger River (ni'jer-), 319, 403, 418, 
420. 

Nile River (nil-), 403. 406, 411, 412, 
418. 421, 422, 433, 434. 

Nineveh (mn'£-ve), 381. 

Nish (nesh). 371. 

Nizhni Novgorod (ny£z'nye ndv'g6- 

rot), 335. 

Nome (Alaska) (nom), 166, 167 
Norfolk (Va.) (ndr'fak), 61, 70, 79. 
Norristown (Pa.) (nor'rls-toun), 77. 
North America (north a-mer'i-ka), 
birth of continent and early history, 
1-16 ; Coal Period, 4-8 ; forma¬ 
tion of coast line, 15-16; formation 
of mountains and plateaus, 8-13 ; 
Great Ice Age, 13-14; peoples of, 
26-31; plants and animals, 17-26 ; 
population, 201 ; present shape, 
size, and position, 16-17, 281, 285, 
286, 287, 288, 289, 301, 331, 422 ; 
see also countries of North America. 
North Atlantic Eddy. 241-242. 

North Cape. 327. 

North Carolina (-kar'6-ll'na), 83, 85, 
88, 89, 91, 110. 

North Dakota (-da-ko'ta), 106, 109, 

110 . 112 . 

North Sea. 306, 326, 341. 

Norway (nor'wa), 289, 319, 324. 325, 
326-327 ; cities, 326-327 ; fishing, 
326 ; foreign trade, 328; govern¬ 
ment, 324 ; lumbering, 326 ; people, 
324; reasons for independence, 

325 ; scenery, 327 ; ship-building, 

326 ; surface features, 325, 445. 
Nova Scotia (no'va sko'shl-a), 180, 

182, 184, 187. 










INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


469 


Nuremberg (nu'rem-berg), 347, 350. 

Nyassa, Lake (-ne-as'sa), 421. 

0 

Oahu (6-a'hod), 173. 

Oakland (Cal.) (ok'land), 152, 154. 

Oases (o'a-s6z), 135-136, 250, 408, 
409. 

Oats, in Australia, 428 ; Austria and 
Hungary, 363 ; British Isles, 292, 
297; Central States, 111 ; Ger¬ 
many, 342; Ireland, 297; The 
Netherlands, 306; Northwestern 
States, 141 ; Ontario, 184 ; Russia, 
333; Sweden, 327. 

Ocean Movements, 239-244. 

Oder River (o'der-), 345. 347. 

Odessa (6-des'sa), 336, 365. 

Ogden (Utah) (og'den), 145, 152. 

Ohio (o-hi'6), 64, 66, 103, 105, 106, 
108, 110, 116, 119, 120. 128. 

Ohio River, 78, 121; cities on. 128. 

Oil City (Pa.), 66. 

Oil, mineral, 66. See Petroleum. 

Oklahoma (ok-la-lio'ma), 84, 91, 
101 - 102 . 

Oklahoma City (Okla.), 102. 

Old Point Comfort (Va.), 60, 79. 

Olean (N. Y.) (o'l£-an'), 66. 

Olives, in Arizona, 147 ; Barbary 
States, 414; California, 142, 145 ; 
France, 314; Greece, 370; Italy, 
356 ; southern Europe, 287 ; south¬ 
ern Russia, 333 ; Spanish penin¬ 
sula, 321 ; Turkey, 378. 

Olympia (Wash.) (6-lim'pI-a), 156. 

Omaha (Neb.) (o'ma-ha'), 127. 

Oman (o-man'), 383. 

Ontario, Lake (-on-ta'rl-5), 63. 

Ontario, province of, 180, 183-184. 

Opium. 384, 399. 

Oporto (6-por'too), 324. 

Orange Free State, 416. 

Orange River, 418. 

Oranges, in Arizona, 147 ; Australia, 
428 ; Bahamas, 198; California, 
142, 145, 146 ; China, 389; Cuba 
and Porto Rico, 169 ; Egypt, 412 ; 
France, 314; Italy, 356; Jamaica, 
197 ; Mexico, 193 ; Paraguay, 272 ; 
southern Europe, 287 ; Southern 
States, 89-90; Spanish peninsula, 
321; Turkey in Asia, 378. 

Orbit of Earth (or'bit-), 218. 

Oregon (or'6-gun), 133, 134, 135, 139, 
141, 154. 

Orinoco River (5'ri-no'ko-), 259, 262, 
272. 

Orizaba, Mt. (-o're-sa'va), 190. 

Orkney (ork'ni), 289. 

Osaka (o'za'ka), 395. 

Oshkosh (Wis.) (osli'kosh), 119. 

Ostriches, 410, 417. 

Oswego (N.Y.) (os-we'g6), 70. 

Ottawa (ot'ta-wa), 180, 181, 187. 

Ottawa River, 185. 

Ottoman Empire (ot'to-man-), 367, 
377-381. See Turkish Empire. 

Oxford (oks'ferd), 300. 


Oyster fisheries, 47, 61-62, 85, 140, 
293. 

Ozark Mountains (o'zark-), 37, 84. 

P 

Pago Pago (pa'go pa'g6), 173. 

Palermo (pa-lerm'6), 358. 

Palestine (p&l'es-tin), 378, 380, 381. 

Pampas (pam'pas), 253, 270. 

Panama Canal (pan'a-ma'-), 100, 
150, 170-171. 

Panama Canal Zone. 170-171. 

Panama, city of, 170. 

Panama, Isthmus of, 133. 

Panama, Republic of, 196, 274. 

Para (pa-ra'), 268. 

Paraguay (par'a-gwl' or par'a-gwa), 
271-272. 

Parana River (pa'ra-na'-), 271. 

Paris (paPis), 286, 315-318, 319, 365. 

Pasadena (Cal.) (pds'a-de'na), 154. 

Patagonia (p&t'a-go'nl-a), 270. 

Paterson (N. J.) (pat'er-sun), 70, 72. 

Pawtucket (R. I.) (pa-tuk'et), 51. 

Peaches, in California, 145, 146; 
Central States, 110 ; Mexico, 192 ; 
Michigan peninsula, 110 ; Middle 
Atlantic States, 63 ; Ontario, 184 ; 
Southern States, 89. 

Peanuts, 90. 

Pearls, 384. 401, 428, 431. 

Peat, 5, 8, 285, 297, 329. 

Pecos River (pa'kos-), 100, 135, 146. 

Peking (pe'kin), 391. 

Pelee, Mt. (-pe-la'), 198. 

Pendleton (Ore.) (pen'd’l-tun), 142. 

Pennsylvania (pen'sil-va'ni-a), 59, 
60, 62, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 
77, 78, 83, 116, 120, 422. 

Pensacola (Fla.) (p<5n'sa-ko'la), 85, 
100 . 

Peoria (HI.) (pe-o'rl-a), 109^ 

Pernambuco (per'nam-boo'ko), 269. 

Persia (pSr'sha or per'zha), 383-384 ; 
agriculture, 383-384 ; government, 
384; nomadic tribes, 384 ; surface 
features, 383. 

Persian Gulf. 383. 

Peru (pe-roo'), 262, 265, 272, 275- 
276; agriculture, 275-276; cities, 
276 ; climate, 275 ; manufacturing, 
276; mining, 275; transportation, 
276, 445. 

Petersburg (Va.) (pe'terz-burg), 62. 

Petrograd (pet'ro-grad), 331, 335- 
336. 365, 386. 

Petroleum (pe-tro'le-um), in Argen¬ 
tina, 271 ; Austria and Hungary, 
364 ; California, 139, 153 ; Central 
States, 116 ; formation, method of 
obtaining, and products from, 66 ; 
geographic distribution of, 442 ; 
India, 399; Indiana, 116; Japan, 
393; Kansas, 116; Mexico, 194; 
Ohio, 116; Peru, 275; Russia, 
334; Southern States, 91; West¬ 
ern States, 136, 139. 

Philadelphia (Pa.) (fil'a-del'fl-a), 
69, 70, 72, 77, 209, 299, 364, 371. I 


Philippine Islands (fil'ip-pin- or 
-pen-), 87, 174-177, 431 ; animal 
life, 176 ; cities, 177 ; climate, 174 ; 
people, 176 ; products, 176-177 ; 
surface features, 174; vegetation, 
174-176, 431. 

Phoenix (Ariz.) (fe'niks), 138, 146, 
156. 

Piedmont Plateau (ped'mont-), 58, 
83. 

Pike's Peak, 151. 

Pilatus. Mt. (p£-la'tdos-), 353. 

Pineapples, in Bahamas, 198 ; Cuba, 
and Porto Rico, 169, 170 ; Florida, 
90; Mexico, 193 ; Pacific islands, 
432 ; South Africa, 417. 

Piraeus (pi-re'us), 370. 

Pittsburgh (Pa.) (plts'burg), 65, 69, 
72, 78. 118, 128. 

Pittsfield (Mass.) (pits'feld), 51. 

Plants, 17-18, 20, 21, 23. See also 
under names of countries, etc. 

Plata Estuary (pla'ta es'tfi-a-ry), 
271. 

Platinum, Russia, 334. 

Platte River (plat-), 143. 

Po River (po-), 281, 355, 359. 

Poland (po'land), 289, 336, 362. 

Poles of the earth, 218, 219, 222-223. 

Pomona (Cal.) (po-mo'na), 154. 

Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), 358. 

Ponce (pon'sa), 170. 

Pontchartrain, Lake (-pon'char- 
tran'), 96. 

Popocatepetl (po-po'ka-ta'pet’l or 
-ta-pet'l), 190. 

Porcelain manufacture, 314, 317, 329, 
364, 386, 393, 395. 

Port Arthur (Canada) (pdrt ar'thur), 
188. 

Port Arthur (China), 244, 386.. 

Port au Prince (por to praxs' or 
port' o prins'), 198. 

Portland (Me.) (port'land), 46, 50, 

54. 

Portland (Ore.), 134, 140, 154-155. 

Porto Rico (por'to re'kS), 87, 167— 
170 ; agriculture, 169 ; cities, 170 ; 
climate, 167 ; size, 167. 

Port Said (-sa-ed'), 413. 

Portsmouth (Eng.) (pSrts'muth), 
298, 300. 

Portsmouth (N. II.), 54. 

Portsmouth (Va.), 79. 

Portugal (por'tu-gal), see Spain and 
Portugal. 

Posen (po'zen), 339. 

Potatoes, in Austria and Hungary, 
363 ; Bermudas, 199 ; British Isles, 
292, 297 ; Germany, 342 ; Ireland, 
297 ; The Netherlands, 306 ; Peru, 
275 ; Russia, 333 ; Southern States, 
90 ; Sweden, 327 ; Switzerland, 
351 ; Venezuela, 272. 

Potomac River (po-to'mak-), 59. 

Potsdam (pots'dam), 346. 

Poughkeepsie (N. Y.) (po-kip'si), 75. 

Prague (prag), 364, 365. 

Precious stones, in Austria and Hun¬ 
gary, 363 ; Ceylon, 401 ; Colombia, 















470 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


274 ; East Indies, 431 ; Montana, 
137 ; Persia, 384 ; Russia, 334 ; 
Siam, 396 ; Southern States, 92. 
Prescott (Ariz.) (pres'kut), 156. 

Prevailing westerlies, 229, 231, 232, 
262, 263, 287, 291. 

Pribilof Islands (pre'b£-lof'-), 165. 
Prince Edward Island (-ed'werd-), 
180, 182, 184. 

Providence (R. I.) (prov'l-dens), 51, 
52, 54. 

Provincetown (Mass.), 46. 

Prunes, 145, 146, 366. 

Prussia (prush'a), 329, 337, 339, 346. 
Puebla (Col.) (pweb'la), 137, 144, 
149, 151. 

Pueblo, 196. 

Puget Sound (pu'jet-), 134, 140, 
141. 

Pyrenees Mountains (pir'£-n£z-), 281, 
311, 320. 

Q 

Quarrying, 44-45; granite, 44-45, 
91, 294; marble, 44, 45, 91, 310, 
356. See also Building stones. 
Quebec (kw£-bek'), 179, 186-187. 
Quebec, Province of, 180, 181. 
Queensland (kwenz'land), 428. 
Queenstown, 302. 

Quicksilver, 321, 363. 

Quincy (Ill.) (kwin'zl), 127. 

Quincy (Mass.), 45. 

Quito (ke'to), 275. 

R 

Races of mankind, 253-257. 

Racine (Wis.) (ra-sen'), 124. 

Rain, belts of, 231-234 ; cause, 230. 
See also “ Rainfall ” under coun¬ 
tries, etc. 

Rainier, Mt. (-ra'ner), 10, 134, 156, 
160. 

Raisin grapes, in California, 146; 

Greece, 370 ; Serbia, 366. 

Raleigh (N.C.) (ra'li), 95. 

Ranching, Canada, 183; Great Plains, 
112-114 ; Mexico, 193 ; Texas, 90 ; 
United States, 203-204 ; Western 
States, 147-148. 

Rangoon (ran-goon'), 401. 

Reading (Pa.) (red'ing), 69. 
Redlands (Cal.), 154. 

Red Sea, 409. 

Reims (remz), 314. 

Reunion Island (re-un'yun-), 421. 
Rhine River (rin-), 281, 305, 307, 
308, 310, 319, 348-349. 

Rhode Island (rod' l'land), 45, 51, 52, 
54. 

Rhone River (ron-), 281, 313, 314, 
315, 316, 318, 351. 

Rice, in Ceylon, 401 ; China, 389 ; 
East Indies, 431 ; Egypt, 412; 
French Indo-China, 396 ; Hawai¬ 
ian Islands, 173 ; India, 399 ; Italy, 
356 ; Japan, 393 ; Korea, 395 ; 
Mexico, 193 ; Paraguay, 272 ; Phil¬ 


ippine Islands, 176 ; Siam, 396 ; 
South Africa, 417 ; Southern 
States, 88-89 ; Spanish peninsula, 
321 ; Straits Settlements, 396; 
world distribution of production, 
437-438. 

Richmond (Va.) (rich'mund), 62, 69, 
70, 79. 

Riga (i'6'ga), 336. 

Rio de Janeiro (re'o da zha-na'ro), 
269. 

Rio Grande River (re'o gran'da-), 
100, 135, 146. 

Riverside (Cal.), 154. 

Roanoke (Va.) (ro'a-nok'), 69, 79. 

Rochester (N. Y.) (roch'es-ter), 63, 
70. 

Rocky Mountains, 38, 112, 133-134. 

Rome (Ga.) (rom), 94. 

Rome (Italy), 311, 355, 358-360. 

Rosario (ro-sa're-6),'271. 

Rosewood, 192, 196. 

Rotterdam (rot'ter-dam'), 308, 311, 
349. 

Roubaix (roo'M'), 314. 

Rouen (roo'aN'), 315, 318. 

Roumania (roo-man'I-a), 366, 367. 

Rubber, in Belgian Congo, 421 ; 
Brazil, 268 ; Central America, 196 ; 
East Indies, 431 ; the Guianas, 
272; Madagascar, 421 ; Mexico, 
192; Paraguay, 272; Philippine 
Islands, 174 ; Straits Settlements, 
396; Sudan, 420 ; Venezuela, 272. 

Rugs, 367, 378, 384, 385. 

Rumford Falls (Me.) (rum'ferd-), 50. 

Russia (rusli'a), 285, 286, 288, 313, 
325, 334-387 ; agriculture, 333 ; 
area, 331, 434; cities, 335-336; 
civilization, 332-333 ; climate, 332 ; 
fishing, 333 ; geographical position, 
331; government, 333 ; grazing, 
333 ; lumbering, 333 ; manufactur¬ 
ing, 334-335 ; mining, 334 ; people, 
332-333 ; population, 434 ; rain¬ 
fall, 332 ; surface features, 331-332, 
339, 434. 

Rutland (Vt.) (rut'land), 45. 

Rye,-in Austria and Hungaiy, 363; 
Central States, 111 ; Germany, 
342 ; The Netherlands, 306 ; Russia, 
333 ; Spain, 321 ; Sweden, 327. 

S 

Sacramento (Cal.) (s&k'ra-men'to), 
142, 153. 

Sacramento River, 135, 146, 150. 

Saginaw (Mich.) (sag'l-na), 119. 

Sahara Desert (sa-lia'ra-), 319, 324, 
406, 409, 420, 421. 

St. Anthony Falls (sant an't6-ny-), 
126. 

St. Augustine (Fla.) (-a'gus-ten'), 
85. 

St. Croix (-kroi), 198, 329. 

St. Etienne (saN't&'tyen'), 314, 315. 

St. Gothard Ry. (-gotli'ard-), 353. 

St. Helena (-he-le'na), 421. 

St. Helens, Mt., 134. 


St. John (N. B.), 181. 

St. John (W. I.), 329. 

St. John River, 181. 

St. John’s (Newfoundland), 182. 

St. Joseph (Mo.), 128. 

St. Lawrence, Gulf of (-la'rens), 185. 
St. Lawrence River, 185. 

St. Louis (Mo.)(-loo'isor-lobfi), 109, 
110, 111, 125-126. 

St. Paul (Minn.), 110, 126. 

St. Pierre, Island (s&N'pyar'), 180. 
St. Pierre (Martinique), 198. 

St. Thomas, 198, 329. 

Sakhalin (sa-Ka-ly£n'), 391. 

Salem (Mass.) (sa'lem), 54. 

Salem (Ore.), 154. 

Salmon fishery, in Alaska, 165; 
Canada, 182 ; Great Britain, 293 ; 
northwestern United States, 141. 
Saloniki (sa'lo-ne'k£), 370, 371. 

Salt, in Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
British Isles, 294; Central States, 
119; Germany, 343; India, 399; 
Kansas, 64 ; Louisiana, 92; meth¬ 
ods of production, 63-64; Michi¬ 
gan, 64, 119 ; New York State, 
63-64 ; Ohio, 64 ; Stassfurt, 343 ; 
Texas, 92. 

Salt Lake City (Utah), 145, 152. 
Salt River, 146. 

Salvador (sal'va-dor'), 196. 

Samoa (sibino'a), 173, 432. 

San Antonio (Tex.) (s&n kn-to'm-o), 
101 . 

San Bernardino (Cal.) (san bgr'nar- 

de'no), 154. 

San Diego (Cal.) (-de-a'go), 154. 
San Francisco (Cal.) (s&n fr&n- 
sis'ko), 133, 152, 209, 371. 

San Francisco Bay, 153. 

San Joaquin River (san wa-ken'-), 
146, 153. 

San Jos6 (Cal.) (san lio-sa'), 153. 
San Juan (sail hob-an'), 170. 

San Marino (sail ma-re'no), 361. 

San Salvador (san sal'va-dor'), 196. 
Santa Fe (N. M.) (san'ta fa'), 156. 
Santiago (Chile) (san't£-a'go), 279. 
Santiago (Cuba), 169, 170. 

Santo Domingo, City of (-san'to d6- 
men'go), 198. 

Santo Domingo, Republic of, 198. 
Santos (saN'toosh), 269. 

Saone River (s5n-), 316. 

Sao Paulo (soun pou'loo), 269. 
Sardinia (sar-dln'I-a), 354. 

Sargasso Sea (sar-g£s'so-), 242. 
Sarsaparilla, 192, 275. 

Saskatchewan (sas-k&ch'e-won), 180, 
181, 183. 

Sault Ste. Marie (Mich.) (soo' s£nt 
ma'ri), 121. 

Savannah (Ga.) (sa-van'na), 85, 89, 
99. 

Savannas, 249-250, 406, 408. 

Saxony (saks'un-I), 347. 
Scandinavian Peninsula (skan'di- 
na'vi-an-), 324. See also Norway 
and Sweden. 

Scheldt River (skelt-), 310, 311. 





INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


471 


Schenectady (N. Y.) (ske-nek'ta-di), 
69. 

Schleswig-Holstein (sles'wik-hol'- 
stin), 329. 

Scotland (skot'land), 281, 289, 291, 
294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 301, 305, 
325. See British Isles. 

Scranton (Pa.) (skran'tun), 64, 69. 

Sealing, 165-166, 182. 

Seattle (Wash.) (se-at't’l), 134, 139, 
140, 155. 

Seeland Island (se'land-), 329. 

Seine River (san-), 315, 316, 317, 
318. 

Seoul (se-ooP), 395. • 

Serbia (ser'bl-a), 366. 

Seville (sev'Il or s§-vfP), 320, 323. 

Sevres (sa'vr 1 ), 317, 319. 

Shanghai (shang'lia/T), 391. 

Shasta, Mt. (-shas'ta), 134. 

Shawnee (Okla.) (sha'ne'), 102. 

Sheep, in Albania, 368; Arabia, 383 ; 
Argentina, 270 ; Australia, 428 ; 
Austria and Hungary, 363 ; British 
Isles, 292, 295, 297 ; Canada, 183 ; 
Chile, 279 ; Denmark, 328 ; Egypt, 
412 ; France, 314 ; Greece, 370 ; 
Ireland, 297 ; Mexico, 193 ; The 
Netherlands, 306 ; New Zealand, 
430 ; Ohio, 110 ; Persia, 384 ; Peru, 
275 ; Roumania and Bulgaria, 367 ; 
Russia, 333; Serbia, 366 ; six 
leading states in production of, 
206 ; South Africa, 417 ; Southern 
States, 90 ; Spain, 321 ; Uruguay, 
271; Western States, 147-148; 
world distribution of, 439. 

Sheffield (slief'feld), 296. 298, 328. 

Shetland Islands, 289, 292. 

Shipbuilding, in Antwerp, 311 ; Bel¬ 
fast, 301; Denmark, 329 ; Glasgow, 
296 ; Liverpool, 301; Norway, 326 ; 
Philadelphia, 69; San Francisco, 
152 ; Seattle, 155. 

Shoshone Falls (sho-sho'ne), 159. 

Shreveport (La.) (shrev'port), 100. 

Siam (si-am' or se'am'), 396. 

Siberia (si-be'ri-a), 331,373, 386,401. 

Sicily (sis'l-li), 354, 356. 

Sierra Leone (se-er'ra l£-o'ne), 420.^ 

Sierra Nevada Mountains (-ne- 
va'da-), 38, 133, 134, 320. 

Silk industry, in Austria and Hun¬ 
gary, 363 ; China, 389, 390 ; Flor¬ 
ence, 360 ; France, 314, 315; 
French Indo-China, 396; Ger¬ 
many, 344 ; Italy, 356-357 ; Japan, 
393 ; Paterson (N. J.), 70 ; Persia, 
384 ; Roumania and Bulgaria, 367; 
sections of the world engaged in, 
440, 441; Switzerland, 353. 

Silver, 8 ; in Argentina, 270-271 ; 
Australia, 429 ; Austria and Hun¬ 
gary, 363 ; Belgium, 309 ; Bolivia, 
276-277; Canada, 184 ; Central 
America, 197 ; Chile, 278 ; China, 
390 ; Colombia, 274 ; Germany, 
343; Idaho, 138; Mexico, 193; 
Montana, 137-138 ; New Zealand, 
430; Norway, 326; Peru, 275; 


Russia, 334; Spanish peninsula, 
321 ; Sweden, 328 ; Texas, 92 ; 
tropical Andean countries, 273; 
Utah, 138 ; Western States, 134, 
136, 137, 138 ; world distribution 
of, 443-444. 

Simplon Tunnel (sim'plon-), 353. 

Singapore (sin'ga-por'), 396. 

Sioux Falls (S. D.) (soo-), 110. 

Sitka (Alaska) (sit'ka), 15, 167. 

Skagway (Alaska) (skag'wa), 167. 

Skutari (skoo'ta-re), 368. 

Slate, in New England States, 41,45; 
Pennsylvania, 67 ; Wales, 294. 

Smyrna (smer'na), 378. 

Snake River, 146. 

Somaliland (so-ma'le-Jand), 420. 

Somerville (Mass.) (sum'Srvil), 54. 

Soo Canal (sob-), 121. 

South Africa. 416-418 ; agriculture, 
417 ; development and settlement, 
416-417 ; mining, 417. 

South America, 259-280 ; animal life, 
263-265 ; climate, 262-263 ; coast 
line, 259, 262 ; government, 266- 
267 ; harbors, 262; immigrants, 
266 ; the Incas, 265-266; inhabit¬ 
ants, 265-266; mountains, 259 ; 
plant life, 263 ; rainfall, 262 ; rivers, 
259 ; shape, 259 ; Spanish in, 266 ; 
surface features, 259-262, 281, 301, 
406, 422. 

Southampton (suth-liamp'tun or 
south-amp'tun), 298, 300. 

South Australia, 428. 

South Carolina (-kar'o-ll'na), 88, 89, 
91, 92. 

South Dakota (-da-ko'ta), 103, 106, 
109, 112, 119. 

Southern States, 81-103 ; agricul¬ 
ture, 86-90 ; cities, 96-102 ; cli¬ 
mate, 84-85 ; coast line, 84 ; com¬ 
merce, 96 ; fishing, 85-86 ; fruits 
and vegetables, 89-90 ; lumbering, 
85 ; manufacturing, 93-96 ; min¬ 
ing, 91-92 ; mountains, 83-84 ; oil 
and gas, 91 ; railways, 96, 97, 100 ; 
ranching, 90; surface features, 83— 
85. 

South Georgia (-jor'ji-a), 279. 

Southwestern Asia, 378-381. 

Spain (span), settlements of, in 
America, 28. 

Spain and Portugal, 288, 289, 311, 
319-324 ; agriculture, 321 ; cities, 
322-324 ; climate, 320 ; colonies, 
324 ; decline in power, 319-320 ; 
farming, 321 ; governments, 320 ; 
grazing, 321 ; highlands, . 320 ; 
manufacturing, 321-322 ; mining, 
321 ; rainfall, 320 ; seaports, 323- 
324 ; surface features, 320. 

Spartanburg (S.C.) (spar'tan-burg), 
94. 

Spice Islands, 431. 

Spices, Cuba and Porto Rico, 169 ; 
East Indies, 431 ; French Indo- 
China, 396 ; India, 398 ; Philippine 
Islands, 176 ; Straits Settlements, 
396. 


Spokane (Wash.) (spo'kan'), 138, 

151. 

Spokane River, 151. 

Sponge fishing, Bahamas, 198 ; Flor¬ 
ida, 85 ; Greece, 370 ; Italy, 356. 
Spree River (spra-), 345. 

Springfield (Mass.) (sprlng'feld), 52. 
Springfield (Ohio), 128. 

Standard time, 225-226. 

Stanley Pool, 419. 

Stassfurt (stas'fbort), 343. 

Steel manufacturing, Belgium, 310; 
France, 315; Germany, 348; Great 
Britain, 296 ; Southern States, 94. 
Steppes (stepz), 253, 332. 

Stettin (stet-ten'), 346, 347. 
Stockholm (stok'hSlm), 327, 328. 
Stockton (Cal.) (stok'tun), 142, 153, 
154. 

Straits Settlements, 396. 

Strassburg (stras'boorG), 337, 339. 
Sudan (sob'dan'), 319, 409, 411, 419- 
420. 421. 

Suez Canal (soo-ez'- or soo'ez-), 354, 

413. 

Suez, Isthmus of, 319, 413. 

Sugar, beet, 87 ; Austria and Hun¬ 
gary, 363 ; Belgium, 309 ; Central 
States, 111; geographic distribution 
of world’s production, 437 ; Ger¬ 
many, 342, 344-345 ; The Nether¬ 
lands, 306 ; Russia, 333. 

Sugar, cane, 87 ; in Argentina, 270 ; 
Brazil, 269; Central America, 
197; Colombia, 274; comparison 
of sugar-producing sections, 203 ; 
Cuba and Porto Rico, 169 ; culti¬ 
vation and production of, 87-88 ; 
East Indies, 431 ; Ecuador, 275 ; 
Egypt, 412 ; geographic distribu¬ 
tion of world’s production, 438 ; 
the Guianas, 272 ; Haiti, 198 ; Ha¬ 
waiian Islands, 173 ; India, 399 ; 
Jamaica, 197 ; Japan, 393 ; Lesser 
Antilles, 198 ; Mexico, 193; Pa¬ 
cific Islands, 432 ; Paraguay, 272 ; 
Peru, 275 ; Philippine Islands, 176 ; 
Queensland, 428 ; South Africa, 
417; Southern States, 87-88 ; states 
which lead in production of, 203 ; 
tropical Andean countries, 273 ; 
Venezuela, 272. 

Sugar, maple, in New England, 50 ; 

in New York and Pennsylvania, 61. 
Sulphur, Sicily, 356. 

Sumatra (soo-ma/tra), 431. 

Sunda Strait. 433. 

Superior (Wis.) (su-pe'n-er), 115, 
117. 121. 

Superior, Lake, 121, 288, 336, 373, 
422. 

Surinam (soo'ri-nam'), 272. 
Susquehanna River (sus'kwe-haiP- 

na-), 59. 

Sweden (sweMen), 324, 325, 327-328 ; 
agriculture, 327 ; foreign trade, 
328; lumbering, 327-328 ; manu¬ 
facturing, 328 ; mining, 328 ; peo¬ 
ple, 324 ; reasons for independence, 
325 ; surface features, 325-326,342. 









472 


INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


Switzerland (swit'zer-land), 319, 

350- 354 ; advantages of location, 
352 ; agriculture, 351 ; cities, 353; 
climate, 350-351 ; dairying, 351; 
government, 351; language spoken, 
351 ; manufacturing, 352 ; mining, 

351- 352; people, 351; rainfall, 351; 
scenery and tourists, 353 ; surface 
features, 350; temperature, 350- 
351 ; transportation, 352-353. 

Sydney (Australia) (sid'ni), 429. 

Sydney (Cape Breton Is.), 185. 

Syracuse (N. Y.) (sir'a-kus'), 63, 
69. 

Syria (sir'I-a), 378, 381. 

Syrian Desert (slr'I-an-), 381. 

T 

Table Bay, 418. 

Table Mountain, 418. 

Tabriz (ta-brez'), 384. 

Tacoma (Wash.) (ta-ko'ma), 134, 
139, 140, 155. 

Tacoma, Mt., 134. 

Taconic Mountains, 41. 

Tafilet (taf'i-let' or ta'fe-let'), 410. 

Tagus River (ta'gus-), 324. 

Tahoe, Lake (-ta'ho or -ta'ho), 159. 

Tampa (Fla.) (tam'pa), 85, 92, 95, 
100 . 

Tampico (tam-pe'ko), 196. 

Tanana Valley (ta'na-na'-), 166. 

Tanganyika Lake (tan'gan-ye'ka-), 
417, 421. 

Tangier (tan-jer'), 416. 

Tashkent! (tash'kent'), 386. 

Tasmania (taz-ma'ni-a), 422, 426. 

Taunton (Mass.) (tan'tun or tan'¬ 
tun), 51. 

Tea, Ceylon, 401 ; Cuba- and Porto 
Rico, 169; French Indo-China, 
396 ; India, 398, 399 ; Japan, 393 ; 
South Africa, 417 ; world distri¬ 
bution of production, 439. 

Teheran (te-h’ran'), 384. 

Temperature, distribution of, 244- 
247. 

Tennessee (ten'nes-se'), 83, 89, 91, 
92, 99, 110. 

Tennessee River, 99. 

Territories of United States, 162- 
177. 

Texas (teks'as), 66, 84, 85, 87, 88, 
89, 90, 91, 92, 100-101, 190, 421. 

Textile manufactures, 50, 77 ; in 
Barcelona, 323 ; Germany, 344, 
348; Great Britain, 296; Italy, 
357 ; New England, 50-52 ; South¬ 
ern States, 93. See also Cotton, 
Silk, and Woolen manufacturing. 

Thames River (temz-), 299, 300. 

Thousand Islands, 188. 

Tiber River (ti'ber-), 359. 

Tibet (ti-bet' or tib'et), 376, 388. 

Tides, 240-241. 

Tientsin (t£-en'tsen), 391, 401. 

Tiflis (tye'flyes), 386. 

Tigris River (ti'grls-), 378, 381. 

Timbuktu (tUn-buk'tob), 420. 


Timor, Island of (-te-mor'), 431. 
Tin, in Australia, 429; Bolivia, 276; 
East Indies, 431 ; England, 294 ; 
Siam, 396; Straits Settlements, 
396. 

Titicaca, Lake (-tlt , £-ka'ka), 276. 
Tobacco, in Argentina, 270 ; Austria 
and Hungary, 363 ; Brazil, 269 ; 
Central America, 197 ; Central 
States, 110 ; Chile, 279; Colombia, 
274; Connecticut Valley, 48, 62; 
Cuba, 169 ; Germany, 343; Greece, 
370; Haiti, 198 ; Korea, 395 ; Mex¬ 
ico, 193 ; Middle Atlantic States, 
62 ; Ontario, 184 ; Paraguay, 272; 
Persia, 383 ; Peru, 275 ; Philippine 
Islands, 176; Porto Rico, 169; 
Russia, 333 ; Russia in Asia, 385 ; 
South America, 273 ; South Africa, 
417 ; Southern States, 89 ; states 
which lead in production of, 204 ; 
Uruguay, 271. 

Tobacco manufactures, Cuba, 169 ; 

Seville, 323 ; Tampa, 95. 

Tobago (to-ba'go), 279. 

Togoland (to'go-land'), 420. 

Tokyo (to'ke-S.) 395. 

Toledo (O.) (to-le'do), 118, 125. 
Tonopah (Nev.) (to-no-pa'), 137. 
Topeka (Kan.) (to-pe'kaj, 128. 
Toronto (to-ron'to), 181, 188. 

Trade, statistics of foreign and do¬ 
mestic, of United States, 210-211, 
445-447 ; wholesale, New York 
City, 73, 211. 

Transvaal Republic (tr&ns-val'-), 
416, 417. 

Trebizond (tr§b'i-z5nd'), 378. 

Trees, in Alps Mountains, 350-351 ; 
Australia, 424-426; Brazil, 267- 
268 ; California, 139 ; Canada, 181; 
German Empire, 342 ; India, 399 ; 
Japan, 393; Mexico, 191-192 ; 
Russia, 332 ; temperate zone, 251 ; 
tropical jungles, 267-268, 399, 418, 
426. 

Trenton (N. J.) (tren'tun), 69, 77, 
294’. 

Trieste (tre-es'ta), 365. 

Trinidad (trTn'l-d&d'), 279. 

Tripoli (trl'po-ll), 409, 416. 
Trondhjem (tron'yem), 327. 

Troy (N. Y.) (troi), 69, 70, 71, 349. 
Tucson (Ariz.) (tu-son'), 138, 147, 
156. 

Tundras (toon'draz), 18, 167, 181, 
248, 286, 332, 385. 

Tunis (tu'nls), 319, 409, 414, 416. 
Tunis, city of, 416. 

Turin (tu'rln), 360. 

Turkestan (toor'kes-tan'), 385, 388. 
Turkey (ter'ki) in Europe, 367-368 ; 
chief city, 367 ; government, 367 ; 
people, 367. 

Tutuila (too'tob-e'la), 173. 

U 

Ukraine (u'kran), 336. 

United Kingdom of Great Britain 


and Ireland, 289-305, 445. See 

British Isles. 

United States, 31-179 ; agriculture, 
202-203; area, 34, 434 ; coal, 204- 
205, 209 ; commerce, 73, 210-211, 
445-447 ; comparisons with other 
countries, 434-449; educational 
institutions, 54, 75, 77, 78, 99, 124, 
125, 152, 156 ; farming, 37 ; fish¬ 
ing, 204 ; forests, 204, 206 ; gold, 
205; grazing, 38, 203-204; iron 
ore, 205; lumbering, 204, 206; 
manufacturing, 208-209,211; min¬ 
ing, 37-38, 204-205; population, 
34, 37, 201, 434 ; railways, 71-72, 
96, 97, 100, 135, 149-150, 151, 
445 ; rainfall, 234-237; silver, 205 ; 
transportation, 216-217, 445. See 
also under names of physical divi¬ 
sions, states, and territories. 

Upernivik (6o-per'ne-vik), 188. 

Upola (oo'po-loo), 173. 

Ural Mountains (u'ral-), 281, 334, 

385. 

Uruguay (oo'roo-gwF or u'roo-gwa), 
271. 

Utah (u'ta or ii'ta), 134, 138, 139,145. 

Utica (N. Y.) (u'tl-ka), 62, 70. 

V 

Valencia (va-lSn'shl-a), 323. 

Valparaiso (val'pa-ra-e'zo), 279. 

Vancouver (Wash.) (van-koo'ver), 
181, 185, 188. 

Vanilla bean, 192, 268. 

Vegetables, in Arabia, 383; Bahamas, 
198 ; Bermudas, 199 ; British Isles, 
292 ; Central States, 110 ; Chile, 
279; Colombia, 274; Cuba and 
Porto Rico, 169 ; Great Lake re¬ 
gion, 110; Ireland, 297 ; Jamaica, 
197 ; Middle Atlantic States, 62 ; 
The Netherlands, 306 ; New Eng¬ 
land, 48 ; Northwestern States, 
141 ; South Africa, 417 ; Southern 
States, 89-90; tropical Andean 
countries, 273. 

Venezuela (ven'e-zwe'la), 272. 

Venice (ven'is), 355, 360-361. 

Vera Cruz (va'ra krooz or vePa 
krooz), 191, 196. 

Vermont (ver-mont'), 41, 42, 45, 54. 

Versailles (ver-salz'), 317, 329. 

Vesuvius (ve-su'vl-us), 357, 358. 

Vicksburg (Miss.) (vlks'burg), 100. 

Victoria (Australia) (vik-td'ri-a), 
426, 428, 429, 430. 

Victoria (Canada), 188. 

Victoria Falls, 403, 418. 

Victoria Nyanza Lake (-nyan'za), 
421. 

Vienna (v£-en'na), 362, 364-365. 

Vilna, 336. 

Virginia (ver-jln'l-a), 60, 62, 63, 66, 
69, 70, 79, 89, 110, 286. 

Virginia City (Nev.), 137. 

Virgin Islands (ver'jin), 329. 

Vladivostok (vla'dye-vas-tdk'), 244, 

386. 





INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 


473 


Volcanoes, 8 ; Andes Mountains, 275 ; 
Central America, 196; East Indies, 
431 ; Ecuador, 275 ; Hawaiian 
Islands, 171 ; Iceland, 329 ; Mont 
Pel£e, 198; on islands west of 
Africa, 421 ; Japan, 394; Mexico, 
190 ; New Zealand, 430 ; Philip¬ 
pine Islands, 174; South America, 
259; Vesuvius, 357,358; Western 
States, 134; West Indies, 198. 

Volga River (vol'ga-), 334, 335. 

W 

Wake Island (wak-), 174. 

Wales (walz), 289, 294, 301. See 
British Isles. 

Walfisch Bay (wol'fish-), 418. 

Walla Walla ( Wash.) (wol'la wol'la), 
141-142, 151. 

Waltham (Mass.) (wol'tham), 52. 

Warsaw (war'sa), 304, 336. 

Washington (D. C.) (wosh'ing-tun), 
70, 78-79. 

Washington. Mt., 41. 44. 55. 

Washington, state, 134, 135, 138, 
139, 140, 141, 151, 155. 

Waterbury (Conn.) (wa'ter-ber-i), 
52. 

Waterloo (wa/ter-loo'), 309. 

Watertown (N. Y.)(wa'ter-toun), 61. 

Waterville (Me.) (wa'ter-vll), 49. 

Weather Bureau. Washington, 237. 

Weather maps, 237. 

Westerly (R. I.) (west'Sr-li), 45. 

Western Australia. 428. 

Western States, 133-160; agricul¬ 
ture, 141-147 ; cities, 150-156 ; cli¬ 
mate, 134-135 ; early history, 133 ; 
fishing, 140-141 ; irrigation, 143- 
147 ; lumbering, 139-140 ; manu¬ 
facturing, 148-149, 153 ; mining, 
136-139 ; mountains, 133-134 ; 
rainfall, 135; ranching, 147-148 ; 
scenery, 157-160 ; surface features, 
133-135; transportation of goods, 
149-150. 

West Indies (-in'dez), 1. 167-170, 
197-198. See Cuba, Porto Rico, 
Bahamas, etc. 

West Virginia. 59, 61, 64. 66, 69, 83. 

West Wind Drift. 242-243, 244. 

Wheat, in Argentina, 270 ; Australia, 
428 ; Austria and Hungary, 363 ; 
British Isles, 292, 297 ; Canada, 


183; Central States, 107, 109-110 ; 
Chile, 279 ; Ecuador, 275 ; Egypt, 
412 ; France, 313 ; geographic dis¬ 
tribution of world’s production, 
436-437 ; Germany, 343 ; India, 
399 ; Ireland, 297 ; Italy, 356 ; 
Japan, 303 ; The Netherlands, 306 ; 
Northwestern States, 141-142 ; On¬ 
tario, 184 ; Oregon and Washing¬ 
ton, 141-142 ; Peru, 275 ; Per¬ 
sia, 383 ; Red River Valley, 109- 
110 ; Rumania and Bulgaria, 367 ; 
Russia, 333 ; Serbia, 366 ; South 
Africa, 417; Southern States, 90; 
Spain, 321 ; Southwestern Asia, 
378 ; states which lead in produc¬ 
tion of, 202 ; Sweden, 327 ; tropi¬ 
cal Andean countries, 273 ; Uru¬ 
guay, 271. 

Wheeling (W. V.) (hwel'ing), 69, 
78, 128. 

White Mountains. 41, 55. 

White Sea. 331. 

Whitney. Mt. (-hwlt'nl), 134, 159. 

Wichita (Kan.) (wlch'I-ta), 128. 

Wilkes-Barre (Pa.) (wilks'bar-ri), 
64. 

Willamette River (wll-la'met-), 133, 
154. 

Williamsport (Pa.) (wll'yamz-port), 
61. 

Wilmington (Del.) (wil'ming-tun), 
63, 69, 77. 

Windsor (wln'zer), 188. 

Winds, 226-230 ; explanation of, 226- 
227 ; prevailing westerlies, 229- 
231, 232, 262, 263 ; trade, 227-228. 
262. 

Wine, Algeria, 414; California, 146; 
France, 315 ; Germany, 344 ; Italy, 
356; Spain and Portugal, 323, 
324. 

Winnipeg (win'm-peg), 110, 183. 

Winnipeg Lake, 183. 

Winona (Minn.) (wi-no'na), 115, 
127. 

Winston-Salem (N. C.) (win'stun- 
sa'lem), 95. 

Wisconsin (wis-kSn'sin), 105, 115, 
117, 119, 123. 

Wood carving, in Germany, 344; 
Italy, 357 ; Persia, 384 ; Switzer¬ 
land, 352. 

Wool, 51 ; in Australia, 428 ; British 
Isles, 292 ; Italy, 356 ; New Zea¬ 


land, 430 ; South Africa, 417 ; 
Western States, 148 ; world dis¬ 
tribution of production, 440. 
Woolen manufacturing, in Australia, 
429 ; Austria and Hungary, 364 ; 
Belgium, 309, 310 ; Brazil, 269 ; 
Germany, 344 ; Great Britain, 295 ; 
France, 314-315; Italy, 357 ; Mid¬ 
dle Atlantic States, 70 ; New Eng¬ 
land, 51 ; Russia, 335. 

Woonsocket (R. I.) (woon'sok'et), 
51. 

Worcester (Mass.) (woos'ter), 52. 
Wuchang (woo'chang'), 391. 
Wyoming (wi-5'ming or wi'6-ming), 
138, 139, 145, 157. 

Y 

Yakima (Wash.) (y&k'I-ma), 142, 
151. 

Yakima River, 146. 

Yangtse River (yang'tse), 388, 390, 
391. 

Yarmouth (yar'muth), 182. 
Yellowstone Park (yel'lo-stoir'-), 134, 
157-159. 329, 430. 

Yellowstone River, 146. 

Yemen (yem'en), 378. 

Yezo (yez'6), 391, 393. 

Yokohama (yo'ko-ha'ma), 392, 395. 
Yonkers (N. Y.) (yon'kerz), Fig. 80, 
72. 

Yosemite Falls (yo-sem'l-te-), Fig. 
197. 

Yosemite Valley. 159, Fig. 197. 
Yucatan (yoo'ka-tan'), 191, 197. 
Yukon River (yoo'kun-), 166. 

Z 

Zambezi River (zam-ba'ze-), 403, 
418. 

Zanzibar (zan'zl-bar 'or zan'zl-bar'), 
421. 

Zinc, in Belgium, 309, 343 ; British 
Isles, 294; Central States, 119; 
Germany, 343 ; Greece, 370; Mex¬ 
ico, 194; Missouri, 119; New 
Jersey, 67. 

Zones of the earth, 220-221. 

Zuider Zee (zl'der ze'), 305, 306. 
Zululand, 417. 

Zurich (zoo'rlk), 353. 

Zurich, Lake, 353. 


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ALABAMA 

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Places with 20,000 to 60,000_ 
Places with 10,000 to 20,000-- 
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40 50 60 

BIRMINGHAM 

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GULF OF MEXICO 


^ 88 ° 


F^hnetto Beach 


87° 


Longitude West from GreenwlcB 


County Seats with less than 2,000_CHATOM 

State Capital County Seats 0 Other placeso 

Railroads - 

_ | _ WILLIAMS ENGRAVING 


86 ° 


Dalton , 


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m 


32 


80 5 











































































ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


By P. W. Hodges, Dothan, Alabama 


between the thirty-first and the thirty-fifth 
parallels gives it practically the same latitude 
as northern Texas and southern .Arizona in 
our own country; and, compared with other 
lands, it is in the same latitude as Palestine, 
Tunis, Morocco, and the southern part of 
Japan. 

Alabama is bounded on the north by Ten- 



A valley scene near Florence. 


I. General Facts 

Alabama lies slightly to the east of the 
center of the group of states called the 

Location Southern States. It is also fre¬ 
quently included in several 
smaller groups of states, named for con¬ 
venience of description the South Atlantic 


States, the Southeastern States, and the Gulf 
States. 

It lies between parallels 30° and 10' and 
35° north latitude; and between meridians 
84° and 53' and 88° and 30' west longitude. 
It can thus be seen that it stretches over 
nearly five degrees of latitude and a little less 
than four degrees of longitude. Its location 


nessee, on the east by Georgia, on the south 

by Florida, and on the west by _ , . 

, Boundaries 

Mississippi. 1 he natural bound" 
aries of the State are the Tennessee River, 
for a short distance on the northwest, the 
Chattahoochee River, for more than half of 
the eastern boundary, the Perdido River, 
separating the southwest corner from Florida, 


Copyright, 1918, by The Macmillan Company. 

1 








2 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


and the Gulf of Mexico, which forms a part 
of the southern boundary. 

The constitution of Alabama describes the 
boundaries of the State in the following 
language: 

The boundaries of this State are estab¬ 
lished and declared to be as follows, that is to 
say: Beginning at the point where the 
thirty-first degree north latitude crosses the 
Perdido River; thence east to the western 
boundary line of the State of Georgia ; thence 
along said line to the southern boundary line 
of the State of Tennessee; thence west along 
the southern boundary line of the State of 
Tennessee, crossing the Tennessee River, and 
on to the second intersection of said river by 
said line; thence up said river to the mouth 
of Big Bear Creek; thence by a direct line to 
the northwest corner of Washington County, 
in this State, as originally formed; thence to 
the Gulf of Mexico; thence eastwardly, in¬ 
cluding all islands within six leagues of the 
shore, to the Perdido River; thence up the 
said river to the beginning; provided that 
the limits and jurisdiction of this State shall 
extend to and include any other land and 
territory hereafter acquired, by contract or 
agreement with other states or otherwise, 
although such land and territory are not 
included within the boundaries hereinbefore 
designated. 

The area of Alabama, 51,998 square miles, 
is about the same as North Carolina, a little 
larger than New York, a little 
smaller than Iowa, more than ten 
times as large as Connecticut, and 
about one fifth the size of Texas. The great¬ 
est length of the State is from north to south, 
a distance of 336 miles, while its greatest 
width from east to west is 200 miles. About 
720 square m’les of the surface is water from 
Mobile Bay and other small arms of the Gulf 
of Mexico. The two counties of Mobile and 
Baldwin border on this Gulf for a distance 
of about 60 miles. 

Several small islands in the Gulf of Mexico 


Size and 
extent 


Population 


are included in the territorv of the State. 

V 

The most important of these are Dauphine 
Island, Petit Bois Island, Sand Island, and the 
Isle Aux Herbes. 

The total population by the census of 1910 
was 2,138,093. This number is far short of 
the present population owing to 
immigration throughout the last 
eight years from other states and from foreign 
countries. Alabama ranks eighteenth among 
the states of the Union in population. This 
means that out of the forty-eight states 
seventeen states have a greater number of 
people. 

At present there are about 1,228,832 
white people, and 908,282 negroes in the 
state. In some northern counties hardly 
a negro can be found, while in others of 
the Black Belt they greatly outnumber the 
white people. Only a very small portion of 
the people were born in foreign countries. 
About four fifths of the people live on farms 
or in villages and towns having a population 
of less than 2000 people. 

1. Name the states that bound Alabama. 
2. Give the natural boundaries of the state. 3. Lo¬ 
cate Alabama by parallels and 


Topical 

questions 


meridians. 4. Trace on the map 
the boundaries described in the con¬ 
stitution. 5. Give the area and the dimensions of 
the state. 6. Compare the size of Alabama with 
that of other states. 7. Give facts in regard to the 
population of Alabama. 


II. Surface 

The surface of Alabama divides itself 
naturally into three main parts; namely, the 
Tennessee Valley, the Black Belt, and the 
Gulf Coast Plain. It is not easy to separate 
these divisions one from the other by exact 
lines because they merge gradually into each 
other. 

The Tennessee Valley includes not only the 
range of counties through which Tennessee 
and near which the great Ten- Valley 
nessee River passes, but in addition the 



ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


3 


Coosa Valley, the Coal Fields, and the 
Piedmont Plateau. 

The Coosa Valley Section extends from the 
northeast section of the State in a southwest- 
ward direction to the northern 
Vaiiey 0Sa limits of the Black Belt. It 
consists of a series of alternate 
ridges and small valleys. The ridges con¬ 
tain many ores of value, limestones, as 
well as supplies of coal which are employed 
in the manufacture of 
iron products. The 
valleys have a rich fer¬ 
tile soil which produces 
cotton, grain, and fruits 
in considerable quan¬ 
tities. 

The Coal Fields Sec¬ 
tion of this division 

„ , , lies to the 

2 . Coal Fields 

northward 
of the Coosa Valley in 
a triangular shape. The 
points of the triangle 
can be roughly placed at 
Tuscaloosa, in the west 
central portion of the 
State; at Russellville, 
toward the northwest 
section; and at Bridge¬ 
port, near the northeast 
corner. This section 
contains the vast War¬ 
rior Coal Fields, the 
Montevallo fields, and those of smaller 
magnitude found in the spurs of the Cum¬ 
berland Mountains, Sand Mountain, and 
Lookout Mountain. 

In addition to the mineral wealth of this 
section, it abounds in rugged ridges and 
mountains which vary in height from 500 to 
1500 feet. Down these mountains and 
through the fertile valleys flow many swift 
streams which have gradually cut their way 
through sandstone, limestone, and granite. 
Some of the most beautiful cascades, water¬ 


falls, gorges, and landscapes to be found any¬ 
where in the United States may be seen from 
the gigantic bluffs of these streams in north¬ 
eastern Alabama. 

The Piedmont Plateau is a triangular 
section with two of the points of the triangle 
on the border of the State of 3 . piedmont 
Georgia. One of these points is Plateau 
the northeastern corner of Cleburne County, 
and the other the southwestern corner of Lee 


County. The other point of the triangle is 
near Calera in Shelby County. 

The surface of Piedmont Plateau is a hilly 
or rolling country. The elevation of these 
hills varies from a few hundred feet to those 
of greater height, which are sometimes called 
mountains. The soil is very fertile and 
adapted to the raising of a variety of 
crops. This section contains immense 
supplies of fine marble and granite, which 
are quarried in paying quantities, as well 
as gold, graphite, and mica, to which in 



Noccalula Falls, Gadsden. The water falls a distance of ninety feet. 







4 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


Black Belt 


several counties much attention is now being 
given. 

A line running from the northeast corner of 
Russell County in a slightly northwestward 
direction to the southwest corner 
of Lamar County will mark in 
an irregular way the northern boundary of the 
Black Belt. The line marking the southern 
boundary runs from near Enfaula in Barbour 
County almost in a direct westerly direction 
across the state to Melvin in Choctaw County. 
This section gets its name from the rich black 


horses, and sheep. This section has been 
found to be particularly adapted to clover and 
alfalfa. 

The destruction of the cotton crop wrought 
by the Mexican boll weevil has done much 
to change the character of farming in the 
Black Belt. Many negroes who previously 
lived on large plantations and raised cotton 
for the rich planters have left the farms to 
work in industrial plants in and out of the 
State. As a result of the shortage of labor 
caused by the removal of the negroes, owners 



A river scene on the Black Warrior River near Tuscaloosa. 


soil which covers the greater part of the Belt. 
Another reason for the name is found in the 
fact that the greater portion of the popula¬ 
tion consists of negroes, of wTich there are a 
larger number than in any other part of the 
State. In many of the counties included 
within the boundaries of this section the 
population consists of from five to ten ne¬ 
groes to every white person. 

For a great many years this section has been 
regarded as the leading farming area of the 
State. Cotton has been the leading product 
of the soil, though within recent years scien¬ 
tific agriculture has shown that the soil is 
adapted to the raising of cattle, horses, sheep, 
hay, and gram, and to the feeding of cattle, 


of large Black Belt plantations have either 
devoted their lands to the raising of hay, 
grain, and live stock, or have sold them in 
small lots to white farmers for the building of 
homes. 

The east and w T est line marking the southern 
boundary of the Black Belt forms also the 
northern boundary of the third Gulf Coast 
natural division of Alabama, the Plain 
Gulf Coast Plain. This division extends 
southward to Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. 
The surface for the most part is slightly roll¬ 
ing, being broken in many of the counties by 
small streams and low ridges. In several of 
the counties in the extreme southwestern 
section the surface becomes low, flat, and 







ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


5 



marshy. This section has been named the 
Pine Barrens, because of the immense forests 
of long-leaf, yellow pine found there, and 
because of the 
belief that the 
soil was not fer¬ 
tile. Much of 
this primitive 
growth of pines 
has been cut 
away for lumber 
and the land is 
now devoted to 
agriculture. 

Many intelligent 
farmers have 
settled in this 
section of the 
State and have 
changed the soil 
from barrenness 
to fertility. 


are the Choctawhatchee, the Pea River, and 
the Conecuh River, which flow into the Gulf 
of Mexico, make a fourth drainage system 


1. Name and A typical scene in the Gulf Coast Plains. Houston County oats, eighty bushels to 

locate the three the acre. Red Land farm of Spann Brothers, 

natural divisions 


Topical 

questions 


of the State. 2. Give characteris¬ 
tics of surface and products of the 
Coosa Valley. 3. Locate and de¬ 
scribe the Coal Fields section. 4. Describe the 
Piedmont Plateau as to surface and products. 5. 
Give the location and leading characteristics of the 
Black Belt. 6. What are the chief products of the 
soil in the Black Belt? 7. Give the location and 
a brief description of the Gulf Coast Plain. 


III. Drainage 

The drainage of Alabama is accomplished 
for the most part by three important river 
The drainage systems: (1) the Tennessee 

system River and its tributaries supply 

the drainage for the northern section ; (2) the 
Coosa-Alabama system drains the larger part 
of the central and eastern sections; (3) the 
Sipsey, the Black Warrior, and the Tom- 
bigbee provide the drainage for the western 
part of the State. Small rivers, among which 


for portions of the southern part of the 
State. 

Water from about one sixth of the area of 
the State in the northern part finds its way 
into the beautiful Tennessee x The Ten _ 
River by streams from the north nessee River 
and the south. South of the system 
mountains which form the southern bank of 
the Tennessee River in its course across the 
State, the streams and rivers for the most part 
take a southern and south westward direction. 
The territory which these combined river 
streams drain is about two thirds of the area 
of the State. The small rivers in the southern 
part of the State furnish drainage for the other 
one sixth of its area. 

The Tennessee River enters Alabama at the 
corner a few miles above Bridgeport and flows 
south westward to Guntersville. From this 
point it bends gradually in a northwestward 
direction and flows out of the State back into 






6 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



High water on the Coosa River. 


Courtesy Alabama Power Company 



Tennessee at the northwest corner of Alabama. 
This river is navigable from Knoxville, 
Tennessee, to its mouth. It thus becomes a 
great highway of trade for the entire northern 
section of Alabama. Large river steamboats 
ply its waters carrying cargoes of lumber, 
cotton, grain, and manufactured products. 

The Alabama River is formed by the 
union of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa, both 
2 . The Coosa- °f which have their sources in 
Alabama northwest Georgia. The Ala¬ 

bama River is navigable from 
its mouth to a short distance beyond Mont¬ 


Bridge and scene along the Black Warrior River. 


gomery. The Coosa River carries boats for 
the greater part of the year from Rome, 
Georgia, to Gadsden, and towns farther south 
in Talladega and Chilton counties. With the 
completion of some enterprises of the United 
States Government for the deepening of the 
channels and the removing of rapids, there 
will be opened through the Coosa and the 
Tallapoosa, a highway of commerce diagonally 
through Alabama, from the northeast to the 
southwest, to the port of Mobile. 

The Cahaba River rises in the mineral 
section near Birmingham and flows south¬ 
ward into the Alabama. 

The Black Warrior 
River rises in the moun¬ 
tainous section of Blount 
County and , 

3 . The Black 
flows m a Warrior, Tom- 

southwest- ^s bee ' and 
Sipsey 

ward direc¬ 
tion into the Tombigbee 
near Demopolis. The 
Tombigbee rises in 
northeastern Mississippi, 
flows in a southerly 
direction, and joins the 
Alabama. The Sipsey 
River rises in Winston 


















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


7 


County and flows southward into the Tom- 
bigbee River. 

The Mobile and the Tensas rivers carry the 
waters of the Alabama and the Tombigbee 
rivers to Mobile Bay. 

The Conecuh River rises in the southeastern 
part of the Piedmont Plateau and flows 

Other rivers sout ^ war( i into the Escambia 
River, which empties into Pensa¬ 
cola Bay. The Choctawhatchee River rises 
in Barbour County and flows southwestward 
into a bay of the same name. 

The Chattahoochee River flows southward 
along the lower half of the eastern boundary 
of Alabama into the Apalachicola River. 


1. Name and locate the three river systems 
that drain the surface of Alabama. 2. Describe 
the flow of the Tennessee River. 3. 
What waters form the Alabama 
River? 4. Describe the Black 
Warrior, the Tombigbee, the Conecuh, the Cahaba, 
the Choctawhatchee, and the Chattahoochee. 


Topical 

questions 


IV. Climate 

The things that determine climate for a state 
or a country are: geographic position with 
reference to latitude and longitude; elevation 
above sea level; arrangement of highlands; 
nearness to large bodies of water; and the 
direction and kind of prevailing winds. 

In all of these matters Alabama is so 
favored as to possess a mild climate with 
General extremes of heat and cold un¬ 
features common. Freezing weather in 

the winter occurs only occasionally in most 
parts of the State, while extreme tempera¬ 
tures of heat in the summer seldom continue 
many days. Very little snow falls in Ala¬ 
bama. Usually one or two snows will be seen 
in the northern part of the State within a 
winter. These remain on the ground for only 
a day or two. In the southern part of the 
State the ground is never covered with snow. 

The rainfall is ample for the growing of a 
great variety of crops. The moisture is well 
distributed through the State except along the 


Gulf Coast where frequently too much rain 
falls. 

The length of the seasons for the growing 
of crops varies in the different sections of the 
State. In the extreme northern counties it is 
usually about 200 days. In the counties of 
the middle portion of the State it ranges from 
210 to 240 days. In the southern counties, 
except for those that border the Gulf Coast, 
the season is from 240 to 250 days. In the 
coast counties the length of the crop season 
is frequently 260 days. In these counties two 
and sometimes three crops are raised on the 
same ground within a year. 

An officer of the United States Weather 
Bureau has compiled official reports of the 
various climatic elements for the Official table 
last several years. The figures of climate 
given are taken from these records. 

The average annual temperature for the 
southern part of the State is 65°, for the 
middle portion 64°, for the i. Tempera- 
northern portion 61°, and the ture 
whole State 64°. The average temperature 
by seasons is 79° for the summer, 64° for 
the fall, 63° for the spring, and 46° for the 
winter. 

The average maximum temperature for the 
summer is 90°, and the average minimum 
for the winter 35°. The highest temperature 
on record is 109°, which reading occurred on 
July 7, 1902 in Talladega County, and again 
on June 26, 1914 in Cherokee County. The 
lowest official temperature recorded occurred 
in DeKalb County, February 14, 1905, which 
showed 18° below zero. The average number 
of days in the year showing a temperature 
above 90° is sixty-two, while the average 
number having a temperature below 32° is 
thirty-five. The coldest weather ever re¬ 
corded in the southern part of the State was 
on February 13, 1899, where the temperature 
showed 5° below zero at Montgomery, and 1° 
below zero at Mobile. 

The last killing frosts in the spring occur in 
counties on the Gulf Coast from March 1 to 



8 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


3 . Rainfall 


March 11; in the entire southern counties 
from March 11 to March 21; in the middle 
2 . Killin g portion of the State from March 
frosts 21 to April 1; in the northern 

counties from April 1 to April 11. The 
first killing frosts in the fall occur in the 
northern portion from October 21 to Novem¬ 
ber 1; in the middle section from November 
1 to November 11 ; in the southern counties 
about November 11; in the Gulf counties 
from November 11 to November 21. The 
latest recorded killing frost occurred in Blount 
County on May 2; the earliest killing frost 
was found in Morgan County on October 2. 

The annual average rainfall for the three 
natural divisions of the State is a little more 
than 51 inches. The highest 
average is in the Gulf coun¬ 
ties where it ranges from 60 to 63 inches. 
The mountains of the northern and north¬ 
eastern portions show an average rainfall of 
53 to 57 inches. The lowest average is found 
in the central part of the State, which records 
48 inches. 

The general direction of the winds for the 
year is from the south. In the winter the 
winds blow mostly from the 
north; in the spring from the 
south; in the summer from the south; in 
September from the east; and for the other 
months of the fall from the north'. The 
highest velocity recorded is 72 miles per 
hour in the gulf storm at Mobile on October 
2, 1893. The coast counties of the State are 
visited about once in every seven years by 
very destructive storms from West Indian 
waters. Destructive local wind storms are 
frequent during the months of March and 
April in many sections of the State. These 
are usually called cyclones, but are properly 
named tornadoes. 

Between the months of May and November 
long spells of dry weather frequently occur 
in many sections of the State. 
It usually happens that these 
droughty seasons are confined to small areas. 


4 . Winds 


5 . Droughts 


Ample local rains may be falling in the coun¬ 
ties amongst the mountains and on the Gulf, 
while dry weather prevails in the middle 
section. General droughts involving the 
whole territory of the State have occurred 
only three times within the last seventy years. 


1. Name the things that determine the climate 

of a country. 2. Give a brief general description 

of the climate of Alabama. 3. Give . 

the length of the seasons for the °P 1 ^ a 

. , • ., , questions 

growing or crops in the dmerent 

sections of the State. 4. Give accounts of the 
highest and lowest temperatures recorded in Ala¬ 
bama. 5. Give several important facts in regard 
to killing frosts in Alabama. 6. State facts in re¬ 
gard to the rainfall of the State. 7. Make state¬ 
ments about winds and droughts. 


V. Animals 

Representatives of almost all of the wild 

animals known to the temper- . 

,, , . ,, , Wild animals 

ate zone are found m Alabama. 

Although the clearing of the forests in 
several portions of the State has robbed many 
kinds of wild animals of their 1 . Land 
homes, there still remain a great aium ais 
number of various kinds. Deer and bear are 
found in small numbers amongst the moun¬ 
tains of the northern part, and in the large 
forests of the southern counties. Fox, wild 
cat, raccoon, rabbit, squirrel, and opossum 
are found in large numbers in the forest areas. 

The streams of the State hold many varie¬ 
ties of fresh water fish. These are caught 
for the most part by hook and 

^ 1 5 Wflfpr l|fp 

line for sport and food. Among 
the most common kinds are perch, bream, cat, 
sucker, eel, speckled trout, black bass, pike, 
buffalo, drum, sturgeon, and shad. 

The beaver, mink, and otter infest the 
banks of the streams in every section. These 
are captured in small numbers by hunters 
and trappers for their fur. 

In the salt waters on the coast of Baldwin 
and Mobile counties are found vast supplies 
of sea fish. Among these the most common 





ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


9 



3 . Bird life 


are sheepshead, mullet, red snapper, flounder, 
sea bass, pompano, tarpon, and Spanish 
mackerel. Most of these varieties are ex¬ 
cellent for food and are caught in large quan¬ 
tities for the markets. Many varieties of 
salt-water game fish furnish sport and pleasure 
to the habitual or occasional angler. Oyster 
culture and fishing is an important industry 
in the waters of Mobile Bay. A very fine 
quality of oyster called the “ Mobile Plant ” 
is sold and eaten in distant cities. 

All sections of Alabama contain birds of 
various kinds. Eagles are frequently seen 
among the crags and 
peaks of 
the moun¬ 
tains of northern Ala¬ 
bama. The wild 
turkey makes its 
home in every section 
where trees and un¬ 
dergrowth provide 
ample protection 
from human view. 

The quail also is 
common to every 
field and wooded sec¬ 
tion. Droves of wild 
ducks and wild geese 
are found on our 
streams on their 

southward migration in the winter time. 
Besides these, flights of plover, snipe, wood¬ 
cock, and pheasants are sometimes observed. 
The dove, which abounds in every section of 
the State, is a source of delight to the hunters 
in the season when hunting is legally per¬ 
mitted. 

Many other types of harmless, useful, and 
beautiful birds are seen in great numbers 
throughout the State. The most common of 
these are the bluebird, the blackbird, field 
lark, yellowhammer, woodpecker, and the 
mocking bird. Among those that are hurtful 
to animal and vegetable life are the crow, 
the sparrow, the haw r k, and the eagle. The 


buzzard is a carrier of disease to both animals 
and men. 

Large numbers of many varieties of domes¬ 
tic animals are raised in various sections of 

Alabama. Use is made of these 
„ . Domestic 

tor service, food, and trade, animals 
Horses, mules, and oxen serve 1. Service 
the people of the State in the aiumals 
fields, on the roads, and in the forests. Most 
of the plows used in the cultivation of the 
crops are pulled by horses and mules. A 
greater portion of the population of the rural 
sections still travel in carriages drawn by 


Hog-raising, a leading industry in Alabama. 


horses and mules. Oxen have not disap¬ 
peared altogether from farms as draught 
animals. In the timber sections particularly 
it is not uncommon to see ox-teams yoked to 
large wagons loaded with logs or lumber. 

For many generations the people of Ala¬ 
bama, even on the farms, bought much of 
their bacon and beef from 2 . Cattle, hogs, 
markets outside of the State. and sheep 
Within recent years the attention of the 
farmers has been directed to the need of 
raising food animals in sufficient numbers to 
supply meats of all kinds for the needs of the 
people. On almost every farm may now be 
found a sufficient number of cows and hogs 








10 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



mon service animals 
and describe their 
usefulness. 5. What 
are the most com¬ 
mon food animals 
raised in Alabama ? 

6. What is meant by 
the slogan, “Alabama 
must feed herself”? 

7. Name and de¬ 
scribe the value of 
some common do¬ 
mestic fowls. 


A fine flock of Southdowns on a ranch near Moulton, Lawrence County 

valuable that many large tracts of land are 
devoted exclusively to the production of 
blooded stock to be sent to all parts of the 
world for breeding purposes. 

Chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are 
found in vast numbers not only on the farm 
_ , homes but on the premises of 

3. Poultry . 

many persons who live in towns 
and cities. These feathered animals not only 
supply meat and eggs for their owners but are 


VI. Industries 

The wide range 
of climate, the 
great variety of 
soil, and the end¬ 
less supply of all 
kinds of natural 
resources have 
made it possible 
for the people of 
Alabama to en¬ 
gage in practically 
every industrial 
occupation known to the temperate zone. 

Since four out of five of the people of the 
State live in rural territory, agriculture natu¬ 
rally comes first among the oc¬ 
cupations of the people. The 
leading agricultural products are cotton, corn, 
peanuts, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, oats, 
peas, clover, vegetables, and fruits. 

For a great many years cotton has been the 
chief money crop in many of the sections of 


Agriculture 


to supply milk, beef, and bacon, for all mem¬ 
bers of the family. It is indeed a rare farm 
that does not produce a surplus of cattle 
and hogs which may be sold dressed or on 
foot to the markets of adjacent towns and 
cities. Sheep and goats are other domestic 
animals that are raised in considerable num¬ 
bers on many farms. 

The raising of cattle and hogs in all sections 
of Alabama has within recent years proved so 


a source of revenue besides. There is always 
a market for the various types of poultry and 
eggs in the towns and cities of Alabama from 
which many carloads yearly are sent to mar¬ 
kets outside of the State. 


1. Name several kinds of land animals found in 
Alabama. 2. Give some varieties of fish found in 
Alabama streams. 3. Name three • . 
kinds each of game birds, harmless q U g S tj ons 
birds, useful birds, and hurtful birds. 

4. Name three com¬ 











ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


11 



Cotton 


the State. The Black 
Belt has been regarded 
as the nat¬ 
ural cot¬ 
ton section, though the 
plant grows well in 
almost any of the various 
soils of the State. The 
appearance of the Mexi¬ 
can boll weevil in central 
and southern Alabama 
reduced the acreage in 
cotton to a considerable 
extent, but gave an im¬ 
petus to diversified farm¬ 
ing. Improved methods 
of cultivation have en¬ 
abled farmers to raise good crops of cotton 
in the sections affected by the boll weevil. 
“ King Cotton ” has not been dethroned, 
but other agricultural products have been 
raised to a position of equal importance. 

Just as the Black Belt was regarded as the 
natural cotton section, so has the Tennessee 
Valley long been called the 
Cereal Belt. In the coves and 
along the creeks of the Tennessee Valley corn 
grows in great abundance, with little eultiva- 


A rural scene. A dairy herd, and a cotton field in the distance. 


tion and without fertilizer, except that which 
comes down from the mountain sides through 
the winter rains. Even in this section, which 
seems to be the natural home of corn, the 
yield has been greatly increased within recent 
years by the introduction of improved farm 
machinery, scientific methods of agriculture, 
and the application of fertilizers. Corn cul¬ 
ture is now so extensive throughout the 
various counties as to enable people in each 
county to have not only enough for their own 
use but a surplus to sell. The counties com¬ 
prising the upper edge of the Gulf Coast Plain 
engage in the raising of corn, which they ship 
in carload lots through Gulf ports. The hills 
and valleys of the middle sections of the State 
produce abundant yields of corn for home con¬ 
sumption and for the markets. The average 
yield of corn for the entire State ranges from 
20 to 40 bushels per acre. Many farmers 
in all sections of the State surpass this aver¬ 



A sample of Indian white corn. 


age every year. 

Wheat is an important food crop in the 
agricultural sections of the Tennessee Valley 
and the Black Belt. South of Wheat 
the Black Belt the elements of 
soil and climate are not suitable to the growth 
and maturity of the wheat plant. Wheat 
does not rank in its importance with corn as 



















12 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 




4. Oats 


A field of sugar cane. 

a food and money crop, though its culture is 
receiving more attention from year to year 
from the farmers. The average wheat field 
yields from 12 to 25 bushels per acre. 

The cultivation of oats is common to all 
sections of the State, 
though the 
yield is 
greater in “those parts 
that have surface red 
land. Since this type 
of land occurs in all of 
the belts, oats is a 
common grain in most 
parts of the State. 

The average yield of 20 
to 30 bushels per acre 
has been greatly in¬ 
creased in many por¬ 
tions of the State by 
careful selection of seed 
and proper fertilizer. 

The sweet potato 
grows well in almost 

5. Sweet any type of 
potatoes so il found 

in Alabama, but it 
grows better in sandy 


land. Almost every 
person who has a garden 
grows sweet potatoes for 
home use. They are 
cultivated in large quan¬ 
tities in most of the 
counties of the Gulf 
Coast and certain por¬ 
tions of the Black Belt. 
Thousands of bushels 
are canned for the mar¬ 
kets, while hundreds of 
carloads are shipped in 
bulk to distant cities. 

Syrup is made from 
green and purple sugar 
cane which , „ 

0. Sugar cane 

grows on 

the rich soils of central and southern Alabama. 
This has grown to be one of the staple 

crops which may be raised for profit. The 

“cane patch ” to make syrup for the farm 
has given place to the cane field to supply the 


Velvet beans enrich the land and feed the stock. 













ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


13 




7. Peanut 


distant demand. No variety of 
sugar cane will mature in the north¬ 
ern part of the State, so people culti¬ 
vate sorghum, from which excellent 
syrup is made. 

The culture of the peanut has 
grown in importance and extent within 
the last few years. It 
strengthens the land by 
furnishing nitrogen to the soil, it 
feeds live stock through its hay and 
nuts, and gives food to man through 
its oil and manufactured products. 

In southern Alabama where the pea¬ 
nut is cultivated on a large scale it is 
planted either alone on the land, be¬ 
tween the rows of corn, or on the 
land, following the harvest of oats. 

This makes it one of the most valu¬ 
able rotation crops known to modern 
agriculture. 

Peas and velvet beans are grown 
in many sections of the State for use as 

8. Peas and hay, manufactured stock feed, 
velvet beans and as builders of the soil. 

All kinds of vegetables are raised in gardens 
and fields in all parts of the State. Through 

9. other the cultivation of vegetables not 

vegetables only is the entire population 
furnished most of its food for several months 


■ 




10. Fruits and 
berries 


Courtesy Department of Agriculture 
Alabama cantaloupes. 


Courtesy Department of Agriculture 
Elberta peaches, Baldwin County. 

of the year, but many persons receive much 
money from their sale. The raising of snap¬ 
beans, tomatoes, cantaloupes, radishes, and 
other staple vegetables to be sold in large 
lots in distant cities is a growing industry 
in various sections. 

Many portions of Alabama are adapted to 
the raising of small fruits and 
berries. In the 
northern section 
apples, peaches, and cherries are 
grown for home consumption on 
many farms. The orchard is as 
familiar and necessary a part of 
the village farm or home as the 
garden. An occasional peach or 
apple farm is found in scattered 
sections of the State from which 
many carloads of luscious fruit 
are shipped yearly for consump¬ 
tion in northern cities. 

Strawberries, raspberries, and 
blackberries are grown in con¬ 
siderable quantities in all sec- 













14 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 





Steel mill, Birmingham. 


tions of Alabama. The cultivation of these 
crops is very remunerative because of the 
large yield that may be secured from a 
small amount of land. Strawberries are 
cultivated on a larger scale than the others. 
They are sent in crates by express and in re¬ 
frigerator cars by fast freight to many cities. 

No State in the Union is more favorably 
situated for the development of great manu- 
Manufactur- facturing enterprises than Ala- 
in g bama. Besides an abundance 

of raw material out of which manufactured 
products can be made, there are ample water 
power and fuel for the running of machinery 
as well as transportation facilities that reach 
to every section. The raw materials found 
in inexhaustible quantities are such things as 


iron, coal, cotton, and timber. One of the 
most remarkable deposits of iron ore in the 
world occurs in the Birmingham ^ 
district in Alabama where two mineral re¬ 
ridges or small mountain ranges sources 
run parallel, one containing (l) {pm, coal, 

. * and limestone 

rich iron ore, the other only 
a few miles distant containing vast deposits 
of coal, while in the middle of the valley 
are great quantities of limestone. Thus the 
three essentials for blast furnaces — the iron 
ore, the fuel, and the flux — are found side 
by side. 

One of the most important articles for the 
manufacturer in Alabama is iron. From the 
crude ore are made pig iron, steel rails, 
fencing wire, car wheels and axles, stoves, 



Standard Portland cement plant, Leeds. 



































ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


15 



Courtesy Alabama Power Company 
Spinning room, cotton mill, Opelika 



boilers, engines, all 
kinds of machinery, 
metal parts for auto¬ 
mobiles, cotton gins, 
plows, and various 
other implements of 
industry. These 
immense plants give 
employment to 
thousands of skilled 
workmen and build 
up prosperous cities 
around their loca¬ 
tions. 

Besides the coal 
and iron which are 
so abundant in Ala- 
( 2 ) Other bama there are found, chiefly 
minerals in the Piedmont Plateau, im¬ 

mense bluffs of granite, marble, limestone 
and other useful rocks. In many places 
in this section great quarries for the prepa¬ 
ration of these rocks have been built. In 
this section also are found large deposits of 
graphite and mica. Large mills have been 
built to put these minerals into form for use 


in the arts and sciences. Some deposits 
of gold have been found in portions of 
eastern Alabama, though these have not 
yet been developed to any considerable 
extent. 

In former years the cotton which was raised 
in Alabama was sent to the factories of 
New England to be made into 2 Frcm agri _ 
cloth. It was then sent back cultural 


into 


products 


A thoroughbred herd, Pike County. 


Ala- ^ c° tton 
bama and sold to 
the people who 
had cultivated, 
picked, and 
ginned it. Much 
of the cotton crop 
is still manufac¬ 
tured in eastern 
cities, but a con¬ 
siderable por¬ 
tion of it is used 
by local factories. 
Immense cotton 
mills with their 
villages of sur¬ 
rounding houses 
where the work¬ 
ers live now 














16 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


greet the eyes of the traveler through 
Alabama. 

Much of the wheat and corn grown in 
Alabama finds its way to flouring mills and 


Peanut crushers and cotton-seed-oil mills 
furnish the means for converting these two 
important articles into usable forms near the 
places of their production. 



Graphite mill, East Alabama, which obtains i 

grist mills in towns and cities and on 
streams where power is easily obtained. 
( 2 ) other farm Canning factories offer a mar- 
products ket for the surplus production 

of vegetables and fruits of near-by farms. 
Creameries and refineries encourage the 
farmers to produce a surplus of milk and 
syrup. 


Courtesy Alabama Power Company 
3 electric power from Lock 12, Coosa River. 

The forest trees of the State have to be cut 
into lumber and the timber made into articles 
of furniture before the value of 3 . From forest 
the timber can be realized. The resources 
presence of immense forests of all kinds of use¬ 
ful and valuable timber has caused large 
milling plants to be built to saw the logs into 
lumber. A great deal of this lumber is 



Power dam, Lock 12, 




























ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


17 


shipped to distant cities and to foreign coun¬ 
tries. Within recent years many plants 
have been built in Alabama to use the lumber 
from the mills. Here are made such articles 
as handles, barrels, plow stocks, baskets, 
crates, coffins, furniture, and wagons. In the 
pine sections of the State turpentine and rosin 
are made in large quantities. Because these 
are used to a great extent on ships they are 
called naval stores. 

Most of the power to run the factories of 
Alabama has come from steam that is secured 

Power for by tbe burnin S of coa l in fur- 
manufacturing naces. 1 his method is em- 

i Coal ployed when the factory is built 

near where the raw material 
exists and usually at a long distance from the 
coal supply. Then, to secure coal for steam a 
railroad must be built to the factory from the 
coal supply or coal must be hauled by teams. 
In either case the work of converting the raw 
material into the finished product proceeds 
slowly and the cost of manufacture is great. 

A second source of power is found in the 
waters of the rapidly moving streams and 
2. Water and rivers of the State. On some 
electric power G f these rivers dams have been 

built to store up water which may be used 
to turn mill wheels. Water used in this way 
furnishes us with water power. This power 
has several disadvantages. It depends upon 


the flow of water in the stream or river 
which may be high or low, and the power 
must be used at the point where the water 
is stored. 

Within recent years water power has been 
used to make electricity. Across several of 
the rivers of Alabama that have swift cur¬ 
rents and high banks, there have been built 
immense dams for the control of vast vol¬ 
umes of water. This water is made to 
turn the wheels of gigantic machinery which 
converts the energy of the flow of the river 
into electric power. This power is car¬ 
ried by wires strung on towers to cities and 
towns far and near where it is used for the 
lighting of streets, the running of street cars, 
and the moving of factory wheels. 

One such dam and plant has been built by 
the consent of the United States Government, 
which controls the waters of these navigable 
rivers on the Coosa River near Clanton. 
Another important plant is at Muscle Shoals 
on the Tennessee. Here the government 
has developed electric power and located a 
nitrate plant. Similar plants have been built 
on the Tallapoosa and the Chattahoochee 
rivers. 

1. What things determine the kind and extent 
of industries of a state? 2. Name the principal in¬ 
dustries of Alabama. 3. What section has been re¬ 
garded as the Cotton Belt? What one as the 



Courtesy Alabama Power Company 


Coosa River. 











18 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Railway and river transportation systems, also electric power sites. 


from the manufacture of 
iron. 7. Name some articles 
made from the forest trees 
of the State. 8. What are 
naval stores? ^ 9. Discuss 
sources of power for manu¬ 
facturing in Alabama. 


VII. Commerce and 
Transportation 

The products and occu¬ 
pations of the people of 
Alabama are so varied as 
to make it necessary to 
carry goods from person 
to person and place to 
place. The merchant 
must have the means of 
bringing his goods from 
the factory to the store. 
The farmer needs roads 
over which to haul his 
products to town and to 
bring back necessary 
articles for his farm. 
People in search of 
health, business, or pleas¬ 
ure, travel from place to 
place. So important has 
the problem of transpor¬ 
tation grown that it has 
become necessary to em¬ 
ploy thousands of people 
and invest millions of 
dollars in equipment. 

The chief means of 
transportation in Ala¬ 
bama is the „ 

.. . Railroads 

railroad. 

Several trunk line rail¬ 
roads cross the State 


Cereal Belt? 4. Describe the raising and the im¬ 
portance of each of these crops: cotton, corn, 
. wheat, sweet potatoes, peanuts, and 

opical fruits. 5. Name some articles of 

questions 


in this State. 


raw” material found in abundance 
6. Give some products that result 


and their branches penetrate every impor¬ 
tant section. There are between 5000 and 
6000 miles of railroad in the State at the 
present time. The leading railroad systems 
that operate in Alabama are : (1) Louisville 




















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


19 


and Nashville, (2) Southern, (3) Cen¬ 
tral of Georgia, (4) Western of Alabama, 
(5) Atlantic Coast Line, (6) St. Louis-San 
Francisco, (7) Illinois Central, (8) Northern 
Alabama, (9) Alabama, Tennessee and 
Northern, (10) Mobile and Ohio, (11) Atlanta, 
Birmingham, and Atlantic, (12) Nashville, 
Chattanooga, and St. Louis. 

The Louisville and Nashville runs in almost 
a southerly direction throughout the entire 
x. Louisville length of the State, passing 
and Nashville through Athens in Limestone 

County; Decatur and Albany in Morgan 
County; Cullman in Cullman County; Bir¬ 
mingham in Jefferson County; Clanton in 
Chilton County; Montgomery in Montgom¬ 
ery County ; Ft. Deposit in Lowndes County ; 
Greenville in Butler Countv; Brewton in 
Escambia Countv; Bav Minette in Baldwin 
County; and Mobile in Mobile County. 

One important branch of the Southern Rail¬ 
way traverses the Tennessee Valley, passing 
2. Southern through Bridgeport, Scottsboro, 
Railway Stevenson anti Woodville in 

Jackson County; Gurley and Huntsville in 
Madison County; Decatur in Morgan 
County ; Courtland in Lawrence County; and 
Tuscumbia in Colbert County. 

Another important branch of the Southern 
Railroad passes 
through Ft. Payne 
in DeKalb Coun¬ 
ty; Attalla in 
Etowah County; 

Whitney in Saint 
Clair County; 

Birmingham in 
Jefferson County; 

Tuscaloosa in Tus¬ 
caloosa County; 

Eutaw in Greene 
County; and Liv- 
ingston in Sumter 
County. 

Other branches 
of the Southern 


Railroad reach Heflin in Cleburne County; 
Columbiana in Shelby County; Maplesville 
in Chilton County ; Marion in Perry County ; 
Thomasville in Clarke County; Selma in 
Dallas Countv; and Mobile in Mobile Countv. 

The Central of Georgia Railway has lines 
leading out of Montgomery and Birmingham 
which reach Union Springs in 3 . central 
Bullock Countv; Eufaula in of Georgia 
Barbour County; Seale in Russell County; 
Opelika in Lee County; Dadeville in Talla¬ 
poosa County; Goodwater in Coosa County ; 
Lafayette in Chambers Countv ; and Roanoke 
in Randolph County. 

Andalusia in Covington County and Geneva 
in Geneva County are reached by branches 
of the Louisville and Nashville, and the 
Central of Georgia, respectively. 

The Western of Alabama route touches 
Opelika in Lee County; Tuskegee in Macon 
County; Montgomery in Mont- 4 . western of 
gomery County; Benton in Alabama 
Lowndes County; and Selma in Dallas 
County. 

The Atlantic Coast Line traverses the 
southeastern section of the State, leaving 
Montgomery and passing Troy 5 . Atlantic 
• in Pike County; Ozark in Coast Line 
Dale County; Abbeville in Henry County; 



Navigation on the Alabama River at Montgomeiy. 










20 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Enterprise in Coffee County; Luverne in 
Crenshaw County; and Dothan in Houston 
County. 

The St. Louis-San Francisco Railway trav¬ 
erses the northwestern section, leaving Bir- 

6. St. Louis- mingham and passing Jasper in 
San Francisco Walker County; Guin in Mar¬ 
ion County; and Sulligent in Lamar County. 

The Illinois Central Railroad passes 
through Hodges in Franklin County; Haley* 

7. Illinois ville in Winston County; Jas- 

Centrai p er j n Walker County; and 

Birmingham, in Jefferson County. 


The Northern Alabama Railway begins at 
Sheffield and passes through Tuscumbia in 
Colbert County; Russellville 8. Northern 
in Franklin; Haleyville in Win- Alabama 
ston County; and Jasper in Walker County, 
and ends at Birmingham. 

Points in Washington, Choctaw, and Pick¬ 
ens are accessible over the Alabama, Ten¬ 
nessee and Northern. A ^, 

„ . , •, . 9. Other lines 

branch oi the JMobilc and Ohio 

Railroad leaves Montgomery and passes 
through Prattville in Autauga County; Cen¬ 
terville in Bibb County; Tuscaloosa in 



The river front 























ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


21 


Tuscaloosa County; and Gordo in Pickens 
County. The Atlanta, Birmingham, and 
Atlantic Railroad leaves Birmingham and 
passes through Talladega in Talladega 
County; Lineville in Clay County; and 
Standing Rock in ("hambers (bounty. 

A branch of the Nashville, Chattanooga, 
and St. Louis Railway connects Gadsden in 
Etowah County with Huntsville in Madison 
County. This line passes Boaz, Albertville, 
and Guntersville in Marshall County. 

It can thus be seen that every county and 
the most important towns of the State have 
ample railroads for travel and transportation. 

Much of the trade of Alabama is carried 

on through a splendid system of natural 

__ waterwavs which have been im- 

Waterways i i i „ 

proved by the expenditure or 

enormous sums of money by the United 

States Government. 

The Tennessee River is navigable for 
passenger and freight boats throughout its 
i. The Ten- entire length in Alabama for 
nessee River about 300 miles. Through this 
river there is an outlet for Alabama products 
from a large and wealthy section of the 
State. A shipment of manufactured goods 
put on board a river boat at Bridgeport 
reaches its destination at Liverpool, Eng¬ 
land, through the Tennessee River, the Ohio 
River, the Mississippi River, the Gulf of 
Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, without using 
any mode of travel except water. 


2. On the 
Alabama, 
Tombigbee, and 
Black Warrior 

the United 


The system of rivers which empties its 
waters into the Mobile Bay is now navigable 
across the central part of the 
State and on into the north¬ 
eastern section for a distance of 
nearly 600 miles. Upon com¬ 
pletion of improvements by 
States Government, a line of navigation will 
be opened through these rivers from Rome, 
Georgia, to Mobile. 

The Tombigbee River is navigable through¬ 
out its entire course, a distance, from its 
junction with the Alabama to Columbus, 
Mississippi, of about 400 miles. 

The completion of extensive improvements 
in the building of locks and dams on the 
Black Warrior River has opened navigation 
on this stream for a distance of nearly 200 
miles into the Warrior Coal Fields. 

Many of the smaller streams, such as the 
Tallapoosa, Cahawba, Conecuh, Choctawhat- 
chee, and the Escambia, are used 3 . On smaller 
for barges, rafts, and small river nvers 
boats. 

The only harbor in Alabama is at Mobile. 
From this port there is a gateway for the 
industrial products of Alabama 
and other southeastern States. 

Through this there pass out to the cities 
of the world cargoes of fruit, grain, cot¬ 
ton, iron products, naval stores, machinery, 
and agricultural implements. There come 
back to the people of Alabama through the 


Mobile Harbor 



in Mobile harbor. 


Covwight bu the Overby Studio, Mobile. Censored by the united states Navy Department; 
pcTJnission given to publish in this geography only 


















22 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Courtesy Highway Commission 
The old and the new way in public roads. 


same port such articles as tea, coffee, sugar, 
spices, bananas, and other products from 
tropical regions. 

To improve navigation through Mobile 
Bay and river the Government of the United 
States has spent many millions of dollars. 
The purpose of these dredging enterprises 
was to make it possible for large ocean steam¬ 
ers to come into the Bav. The harbor now 


ranks as one of the best of 
those along the southern coast. 

Another means of transporta¬ 
tion of growing importance is 
the public or 
“ dirt ” road. The Pubhc roads 
name “dirt” is x - T he dkt 

. road 

applied to these 
roads because for many years 
the only roads known to Ala¬ 
bama were those made by cut¬ 
ting away a path of trees suf¬ 
ficiently wide for the passage of 
a wagon. To avoid the mud of 
the lowlands these roads were 
cut across ridges and around 
the edges of mountains. Road 
makers were careful to use only those por¬ 
tions of the land which could not be cul¬ 
tivated. As a result of this type of road 
building the average dirt road in Alabama 
was an alternate series of mud holes and 
rocks. In consequence of the difficulty of 
traveling over such roads, the amount of 
travel between country and town for either 
pleasure or trade was very little. 





Modern road machinery. 


Courtesy Highway Commission 







ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


23 



Within recent years many of these crude 
roads have given place to modern highways 
built under the direction of 
highway m ° der ° sldlled engineers and workmen. 

(1) Construe- J nstead of the mud and rocks 
tion m their natural state out of 

which the old roads were built, 
the science of modern road building has 
discovered the secret of using these same 
native elements in such forms and propor¬ 
tions as to produce far better means' for 
rural transportation. The materials that 
enter into the construction of the modern 
highways in Ala¬ 


in practically all of the southern portion 
of the State the roads are built for the most 
part of native sand and clay. The build¬ 
ing of this type of road is easier and less ex¬ 
pensive than in the case of either the chert 
or limestone roads. The bed is made in 
the shape of a watershed and is covered 
with a mixture of sand and clay in- such 
proportions as to make a smooth and lasting 
surface. 

In the building of modern roads an at¬ 
tempt is made to make them 
both level and straight. The Repair 


bama are found 
for the most part 
in the immediate 
vicinity where 
the road is to be 
built. In the 
counties of the 
Tennessee Valley 
there is an abun¬ 
dant supply of a 
fine quality of 
both chert and 
limestone. This 
gravel or crushed 
limestone is 
placed to a thick¬ 
ness of several inches over a bed of coarser 
rock which has been firmly placed on a 
foundation of clay. The slope of the fin¬ 
ished road is such as to drain water to the 
sides of the road bed. 

A similar plan of construction of roads is 
followed in the section of the State to the 
south of the Tennessee Valley. Except in 
certain portions of the Black Belt it is not 
necessary to transport road-building materials 
for any great distance. In the Black Belt 
both gravel and macadam roads are built 
from native or shipped materials. In some 
of the counties of this section are found the 
best roads of the State, which rank easily with 
the finest highways of any state in the Union. 


A good road and modern farm homes. 


Courtesy Hit/hicay Commission 


(3) Use 


repair of such roads is easily made by the 
use of modern implements. 

Between eight thousand and nine thousand 
miles of modern highways have been built, 
over which there are trans¬ 
ported every year by wagon and 
gasoline trucks thousands of tons of raw 
material and manufactured goods of various 
kinds. Wholesale merchants of many towns 
and cities of the State use trucks to deliver 
supplies of goods to country stores. Many 
farmers who live on or near these improved 
highways own or use automobiles to deliver 
their products to towns and cities, and to 
carry back articles of clothing, farm imple¬ 
ments, and other necessary supplies. Many 










24 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



and maintain a liberal system of public 
schools throughout the State for the benefit of 
the children thereof between the Public educa- 
ages of seven and twenty-one tion 
years. For the fulfilling of this requirement, 
the people of the State through their Legis¬ 
lature have established, organized, and 
are maintaining a system of elementary 
schools, high schools, agricultural schools, 
normal schools, and colleges. 

The scope of work of the elementary schools 
is usually confined to those branches of 
study included in the first seven i. Elementary 
grades. Instruction is given schools 
in these schools in such useful branches 
as reading, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, 
geography, United States history, agricul¬ 
ture, physiology and hygiene, and penman¬ 
ship. The teacher of the elementary school 
is not forbidden by law to give instruction 
in higher branches, though it is the policy of 
those in charge of the schools of the State 
to confine the work of the elementary schools 

to seven grades. 
Schools of elemen¬ 
tal-v grade are main- 
tained in rural sec¬ 
tions, and in the 
cities, towns, and 
villages. 

When the child 
has completed the 

course . . , 

2. High schools 

of study 

prescribed for the 
elementary schools 
he is then ready to 
enter the high school. 
In many of the more 
thickly populated 
rural communities 
high school courses 
consisting of one or 
two grades of study 
are given in connec- 
A modern city elementary school, Dothan. tion with the ele- 


Topical 

questions 


salesmen and agents of industrial enterprises 
visit towns in their territory altogether by 
automobile travel. 

1. Name the chief means of transportation in 
Alabama. 2. On or near what railroad is the 
county seat of your county? 3. 
Name and trace two important 
railroads that traverse the State. 

4. On what road would you travel in going from 
Bridgeport to Huntsville? from Decatur to Bir¬ 
mingham ? from Opelika to Montgomery ? from Tus¬ 
caloosa to Birmingham? from- Union Springs to 
Montgomery? from Guin to Birmingham? from 
Selma to Mobile? from Montgomery to Dothan? 

5. Name and locate some important navigable 
rivers of Alabama. 6. Discuss the importance of 
Mobile Harbor to the commerce of the State and 
section. 7. Describe the methods of constructing 
good roads in Alabama and mention their importance 
to commerce. 8. Give the approximate number of 
miles of good roads in the State. 

VIII. Education 

The Constitution of Alabama requires 
that the Legislature shall establish, organize, 



















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


25 




mentary school. It 
is provided by law 
that every such ele¬ 
mentary school must 
give instruction in 
high school branches 
upon demand for such 
instruction from any 
pupil who lives a 
greater distance than 
three miles from a 
high school. 

In all the cities of 
the State high schools 
are maintained either 
in connection with the 
elementary schools in 
the same building 
or in separate build¬ 
ings. The high 
schools are supported 
and controlled in 
the same way and 

by the same authority as the elementary 
schools. 

For the benefit of those children who do 
not live near enough to attend a city or a 
rural high school, the State Legislature has 






>T'- 


SB***"- 




A modern city high school. 


for the establishment 
a system of county 


and 

high 


Dallas County high school, Plantersville. 


made provision 
maintenance of 
schools. These are usually located in or 
near the geographical center of the county 
so that all the children who wish to at¬ 
tend may have 
access to them 
on an equal basis. 
Courses of in¬ 
struction are 
given in these 
schools of such 
scope and kind 
as to prepare for 
entrance in col¬ 
lege and to fit 
boys and girls for 
the duties of 
citizens. Since 
many of the boys 
and girls who 
attend high 
school are not 


Courtesy University of Alabama 
























26 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


able to take courses in higher institutions, 
the county high school, as organized and 
conducted in Alabama, has been very fitly 
called the “ College of the People.” This 
class of schools deserves the sympathy and 
support of all of the people of the State. 

Since about eighty per cent of the people 
of Alabama live on farms, knowledge of 
3 . Agricultural scientific agriculture on the part 
schools 0 f it s boys and girls is necessary 

in order that we may get the greatest return 
from the soil. To meet this necessity the 
people, through their representatives, have 
established a system of agricultural high 
schools with courses in improved methods of 
farming and kindred subjects. So that the 
influence of these schools may be felt in 
various sections of the State the law makes 
provision that one shall be placed in each 


congressional district, 
schools are as follows: 

The locations of these 

DISTRICT 

LOCATION 

First 

Jackson 

Second 

Evergreen 

Third 

Abbeville 

Fourth 

Sylacauga 

Fifth 

Wetumpka 

Seventh 

f Albertville 
\ Blountsville 

Eighth 

Athens 

Tenth 

Hamilton 


A change of the lines for congressional districts 
by the Legislature at its last session placed two of 
these schools in the seventh district, which left two 
districts, the sixth and the ninth, without agricul¬ 
tural schools. 

Under the influence of the agricultural ex¬ 
periment station at Auburn and of the dis¬ 
trict agricultural schools, a noticeable change 

in agricultural 
results has been 
produced all over 
the State. The 
boys and girls go 
back to their 
homes from these 
schools with a 
knowledge of 
modern methods 
of agriculture and 
home keeping 
which enables 
them to get bet¬ 
ter results from 
the soil and a 
greater measure 
of comfort and 
pleasure from life 
on the farm. In 
addition to the 
agricultural fea¬ 
tures, the courses 
of study .in 
these schools pro¬ 
vide instruction 
equivalent to 












ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


27 


that given in city and county high schools 
in academic branches. 

Since Alabama is largely an agricultural 
State, all movements and agencies for the 

4. Boys’ and improvement of farming con- 
Giris’ Clubs ditions are welcomed. Only 

within recent years have the farmers begun 
to realize the real value of the soil and the 
delights of life on the farm. This knowl¬ 
edge has come in part through the teaching 
of agricultural subjects in all of the schools 
as required by law and in part through the 
influence of clubs for the boys and the girls. 

The girls of each 
school and community 
are organized into vege¬ 
table and poultry clubs 
to learn by study and 
experiment how to raise 
better gardens and to 
produce poultry in pay¬ 
ing quantities. The 
organization and direc¬ 
tion of these clubs are 
under an agent whose 
salary is paid partly by 
the United States Gov¬ 
ernment and partly by 
local county boards. 

Prizes are given for the greatest yields and 
the finest qualities of farm products. 

Corn clubs and pig clubs for the boys 
have been organized whose members compete 
for prizes that are given by individuals and 
organizations. The results which they ob¬ 
tain always show the wisdom of the use of 
money in this way. A few years ago, an 
Alabama boy raised 232 bushels of corn on 
his prize acre. This is the greatest yield for 
a single acre that has ever been produced in 
the history of corn culture. 

I 11 keeping with modern progress in edu¬ 
cational matters the Legislature of Alabama 

5 . Normal has recognized the need for the 

schools training of teachers to instruct 

the children in all grades of schools. Six 


schools for the training of teachers for white 
people and three to supply teachers for negro 
schools have been established by the Legis¬ 
lature. In addition to thorough courses of 
study in academic branches above high 
school grades, instruction in the methods of 
teaching various branches is given by teachers 
of thorough training and long experience. 
A feature of the work of these schools 
is the requirement that those who are 
preparing to teach shall do practice work 
with a class of children under the im¬ 
mediate direction of an expert critic teacher. 


The six normal schools for white teachers 
are divided into two classes according to the 
grade and scope of the work done. The 
four Class A schools located at Florence, 
Jacksonville, Troy, and Livingston, respec¬ 
tively, require for entrance a four-year high 
school course or its equivalent, and for gradu¬ 
ation, a two-year course at a normal school. 
Upon graduation from a Class A normal 
school the State Board of Examiners will 
issue to the holder of a diploma a first grade 
teacher’s certificate. 

The Class B normal schools, located at 
Daphne and Moundville, give work in high 
school branches in addition to some training 
in methods and practice teaching. 

The normal schools for the training of 



Main building, State Normal School, Jacksonville. Girls’ dormitory at the left. 















28 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 




Girls’ dormitory, State? Normal School, Livingston. 


negro teachers are located at Normal, Mont¬ 
gomery, and Tuskegee. The work done by 
the first two of these is similar in character, 
though not so extensive in scope, as that 
done at the normal schools for white teachers. 
Schools of instruction in methods, and prac¬ 
tice teaching in the presence of critics are 
important features of the work done at these 
schools. In addition to this a great deal of 
attention is given to household and manual 
arts, agriculture and 
woodworking, dairy¬ 
ing and other useful 
industries. 

The work of train¬ 
ing teachers at the 
Tuskegee Normal 
and Industrial In¬ 
stitute forms only a 
minor part of the 
activity of one of 
the most complete 
and useful educa¬ 
tional institutions in 
the world. 

Instruction in the 
various departments 


is given in over forty 
trades or professions. 
These industries may 
be grouped in three 
divisions: the school 
of agriculture, the 
department of me¬ 
chanical industries, 
and the industries 
for girls. 

From the normal 
schools have gone 
into our rural and 
city communities 
many young men 
and young women 
who, because they 
have been trained 
for a specific work, 
can teach and inspire the children. County 
superintendents and other school officials 
recognize the value of normal school train¬ 
ing by demanding of these schools a greater 
number of teachers each year than they are 
able to supply. 

The educational system of Alabama would 
not be complete without provi- 6 . colleges and 
sion for those young men and Universities 

young women who desire to secure a college 




Courtesy Dept, of Education 


Negro Training School, Lowndes County. 














ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


29 


education before going 
into the active pursuits 
of life. The Legislature 
has taken note of this 
need by the establish¬ 
ment of three institu¬ 
tions for higher educa¬ 
tion. These are the 
University of Alabama 
near Tuscaloosa; the 
Alabama Polytechnic In¬ 
stitute at Auburn; and 
the Alabama Girls’ Tech¬ 
nical Institute at Monte- 
vallo. 




ttSSU— .A 


11 *. 



-ii 








■ f v ‘ 



. y 



The University of 


Class in carpentry, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. 


versity of 
Alabama 


Alabama may, in a 
sense, be regarded as the head of the system 
(l) The Uni- education in Alabama. The 
lands, buildings, and equipment 
represent a vast expenditure of 
money. Many young men and young women 
of the State take advantage of its splendid 
courses in academic branches, in law, in 
medicine, in engineering, and in its depart¬ 
ment for the training of teachers. 


uounesy university uj muuumu 

Comer Hall, Engineering Building, University of Alabama. 


The University is the oldest institution 
for higher education in the State. It was 
established on a permanent basis in the 
year 1831, from which date it has been con¬ 
tinuously open except for a short period 
during the War between the States. It has 
done a great work for the higher education 
of men; it is now co-educational. Many of 
the most important positions in business, 

in the professions, 
and in politics 
are now held by 
graduates of the 
University. 

The Alabama 
Polytechnic In¬ 
stitute (2) Ala- 

fills an b « ? ' ,a 

Poly- 

impor- technic 
tailt Institute 

place in the edu¬ 
cational and in¬ 
dustrial life of 
the State. Its 
courses in aca¬ 
demic branches 
rank with those 
of the best col¬ 
leges and uni- 






























30 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



versities in the South. Its buildings and 
equipment for instruction in engineering 
and mining, veterinary medicine and surgery, 
and in agricultural sciences, make this school 
the equal of other similar institutions through¬ 
out the country. 

The Alabama Girls’ Technical Institute, 
as its name, suggests, is a school established 
(3) Alabama and maintained for the training 
Girls' Technical of girls of the State in those 
subjects that relate to the mak¬ 
ing and the keeping of homes. In addition to 


parents and teachers at home. In this 
school these boys are taught the usual 
academic branches and are given, besides, 
training in the useful trades. A similar in¬ 
stitution is maintained for youthful negro 
lawbreakers at Mt. Meigs in Montgomery 
County. 

At Talladega the State maintains insti¬ 
tutions for the teaching and training of deaf 
mutes, and children of both races who are 
blind or nearly so. 

The Bryce Hospital for the insane is a 

wonderful in¬ 


Main building, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. 


thorough courses in academic branches, the 
school gives instruction in cooking, sewing, 
nursing, sanitation, designing, and other 
kindred subjects designed to make of the girls 
of Alabama good home keepers. 

In addition to these institutions the State 
has made provision for other special schools. 
7. other public The Alabama Boys’ Industrial 
institutions School, located at East Lake, is 
maintained for the benefit of young white 
boys who cannot be controlled bv their 


stitution, sup¬ 
ported by the 
State at Tusca¬ 
loosa. This In¬ 
stitution makes 
splendid provi¬ 
sion for the care 
and cure of those 
persons whose 
minds have be¬ 
come diseased. 
Manv of these 

C' 

return to their 
homes and their 
families happy 
and well as a 
result of the 
treatment given 
their minds and 
bodies. 

In addition to 
the various 
classes of schools supported by the State, 
Alabama has a number of ex- p r j va t e and 
cellent institutions that are denomina- 
maintained by private individ- tional schools 
uals and religious denominations. Among 
the best-known private schools are: Barnes 
School, Montgomery; Margaret Booth 

School, Montgomery; Starke’s University 
High School, Montgomery; University Mili¬ 
tary High School, Mobile; Marion Institute 
at Marion; The Margaret Allen School, 









ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


31 


Birmingham; Loulie Compton Seminary, 
Birmingham; University High School, 
Birmingham. 

The most important denominational schools 
for Catholics are Spring Hill College, Mobile, 
and St. Bernard College near Cullman. 
The Methodists have Birmingham College 
for men near Birmingham, Athens College 
for Young Women at Athens, and the 
Woman’s College of Alabama at Montgomery. 
The Southern University at Greensboro, also 
an institution of the Methodist Church, has 
been combined with Birmingham College. 
Colleges for the Baptists are Howard College, 
Birmingham, and Judson College, Marion. 
The Alabama Presbyterian College at Annis¬ 
ton is maintained for the higher education 
of men. 

In addition to these denominational schools 
for higher education, the various denomina¬ 
tions maintain numerous smaller schools for 
training in elementary and high school 
branches. 

The chief officer in the administration of 
the schools of Alabama is the State Super¬ 
intendent of Education. He 
The admin- i s elected by the votes of the 
people once every four years 
and is not allowed to succeed 
himself in office. He has an 
of U Educitk, d n ent Office at the State Capitol in 
Montgomery from which the 
administration and supervision of the 
schools are carried on. In this work he is 
assisted by a large force of men and women 
appointed by him to do special kinds ot 
work. Some of these are teachers who have 


istration of 
schools 

i. The State 


obtained prominence in educational matters, 
while others are expert bookkeepers, stenog¬ 
raphers, and specialists in some particular 
kind of school work. There is a vast amount 
of bookkeeping and other clerical work done 
in connection with the keeping of all kinds 
of educational records and accounts. 

The State Superintendent of Education is 
required by law to visit, as occasion ma} aiise, 


the various counties of the State to make 
inquiry into any matters in regard to the 
schools of the county which may require his 
attention. He is, by reason of his office, a 
member of all boards of trustees and com¬ 
missions that have control of any special 
schools or any particular groups of schools. 
In this way his influence is felt in the direction 
of all classes of schools from the highest 
college of the State to the most remote 
school in the country districts. 

A single exception to the general supervision 
of the State Superintendent of Education is 
seen in the case of the management of schools 
in the cities of a population of 2000 people 
or more. Control of schools of this type is in 
the hands of local boards of education elected 
by the people at large, or by members of the 
City Council 

The immediate control of the schools of 
any county is placed by the law under a 
Board of Education of five mem- 2 The County 
bers elected by the votes of the Board of Edu- 
people of the county. In all catlon 
matters of detail this Board of Education has 
entire authority to run the schools of the 
county. One of its most important duties 
is the election of the county superintendent, 
whose duties in the county are similar to those 
of the state superintendent in the State. It 
is within the authority of the County Board 
of Education to discharge at any time for 
immorality, incompetency, or for failure for 
any reason to perform his duties, the 
county superintendent whom they have 
elected. Other important duties to be per¬ 
formed by the County Board of Education 
are to select teachers for the schools of the 
county, to erect school buildings, to con¬ 
solidate schools, to enforce attendance of 
children within the compulsory school age, 
and to provide for the taking of the school 
census once every two years. 

The county high schools are under the 
control of the County Board of Education, 
subject to approval of the State High School 






32 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 




A consolidated rural school, Five Points. 

Commission, composed of the Governor of 
the State, the State Auditor, and the State 
3. The County Superintendent of Education. 

High School This Commission adopts uni- 

Commission p r x j r 11 

form courses 01 study tor all 

county high schools in the State, and requires 

the teachers in these schools to follow these 

courses. The nomination of the high school 

principal and teachers must be confirmed by 

the High School Commission before the 

teachers can en¬ 


persons appointed by the 
Governor. This Board has 
direct control over the 
normal schools of the State. 

The affairs of the district 
agricultural schools are man¬ 
aged by boards 5 Manage . 

of five men for ment of agri- 

1 1 1 cultural schools 

each school. 

Two of these are appointed 
by the Governor from the 
Congressional District in 
which the school is situated; 
the other three members of 
the board are the Governor, 
the State Superintendent of 
Education, and the Commis¬ 
sioner of Agriculture and 
Industries. The duties of 
this Board are in many re¬ 
spects like those of the normal school board 

and those for other special schools and 

classes of schools. 

Each of the three higher institutions, the 
University of Alabama, the Alabama Poly¬ 
technic Institute, and the Alabama Girls’ 
Technical Institute, has its own board of 
control. The members of these boards con¬ 
sist of the Governor of Alabama, the State 
Superintendent of Education, and other per- 


and six other 


Smith Hall, Geological Museum, University of Alabama. 


gage 

work. 

The 

schools 


in 


4. Admin¬ 
istration 
of normal 
schools 


their 

normal 
of the 
State 
are ad- 


111 mis¬ 
tered 
by a Board com¬ 
posed of the 
Governor of the 
state, the State 
Superintendent 
of Education, 




























ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


33 


sons appointed by the Governor. In the 
case of the University of Alabama the men 
appointed to serve on the board of trustees 
must be approved by a vote of the State 
Senate. 

All classes of schools of the State are sup¬ 
ported by money which the people pay into 
Financial the treasury as taxes. The 

support Constitution provides that the 

amount of thirty cents on each $100 of prop¬ 
erty must be paid each year for the support of 
the public schools. This is called the 3-mill 
tax. The money raised by this tax may be 
increased by appropriations from the Legis¬ 
lature of such additional amounts as the 
money in the Treasury will justify. The 
amount which is derived from the State 
school tax, the appropriation from the Legis¬ 
lature, and other statutory funds are added 
together and divided among the counties 
according to the number of children in 
each county that come within the school 
age. 

In most counties the amount of money that 
comes from the State Treasury for the support 
of the schools is not sufficient. The Consti¬ 
tution provides that the people of such a 
county may hold an election and vote a 
county tax not to exceed thirty cents on 
each $100 to be used for the schools of the 
county. 

There is another constitutional provision 
which confers the right to levy a county tax 
of one mill for school purposes. This brings 
the total county school levy up to four mills. 
In this way mam' counties have secured 
enough money to run their schools longer and 
to employ a greater number of teachers. In a 
county which has voted a tax of as much as 
thirty cents on each $100, any school district 
may by a majority vote levy a tax for the 
district schools of not more than thirty cents 
on each $100. 

The state has a permanent school fund of 
over $2,000,000 annually, which is used 
for education. 


1. Name the classes of schools that are main¬ 
tained in Alabama. 2. Give the number of grades 
and name the studies included in 
the elementary schools. 3. Discuss Topic . al 
the scope of work and plan of ad- questlon ' J 
ministration of each of these classes of schools: 
County High Schools, Agricultural Schools, and 
Normal Schools. 4. Name and locate the three 
higher institutions of learning that are maintained 
in the State. 5. Discuss the election and the duties 
of the State Superintendent of Education. 6. De¬ 
scribe the duties of the County Board of Education. 
7. Give the sources of revenue for the support of the 
schools of the State. 

IX. Government 

Alabama has a republican form of govern¬ 
ment. By this it is meant that the people 
govern themselves through rep- state govem- 
resentatives that they elect by ment 
their votes. There is a division of the powers 
of government among three distinct groups, 
the legislative, the executive, and the judicial 
departments. 

The Legislative Department of the govern¬ 
ment of Alabama is composed of two parts, 
the Senate and the House of x . Legislative 
representatives. The Senate Department 
consists of thirty-five persons who are elected 
by the votes of the people in the several sena¬ 
torial districts once in every four years. A 
senator must be at least twenty-five years of 
age at the time of his election. The House 
of Representatives consists of one hundred 
six members who are elected from the 
various counties once in every four years by 
a majority of the voters of each county. 
Every county must have at least one repre¬ 
sentative, though a large county may have 
several, according to the number of people. 
A member of the House of Representatives 
must be at least twenty-one years of age at 
the time of his election. 

The Legislature meets in the Capitol at 
Montgomery on the second Tuesday in Jan¬ 
uary after the election of its members in No¬ 
vember. It remains in session for fifty days 



34 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



of the Governor the Lieutenant Governor 
becomes Governor for the remainder of the 
four-year term. The Attorney General gives 
legal advice to the Governor and represents 
the State of Alabama as counsel in any law¬ 
suit to which the State is a party. The Secre¬ 
tary of State keeps all the official records of 
the Legislature and of the various Executive 
Departments. The Treasurer receives the 
money for the State and pays it out on order 
of the Auditor. The State Auditor is the 

official book¬ 
keeper of all the 
departments of 
the government. 
II e examines 
every claim for 
payment of 
money out of the 
treasury, and 
issues warrants 
on the Treasurer 
for the payment 
of the debts of 
the State. 

All the execu¬ 
tive officers are 
elected by the 
votes of the 
people of the 
entire State for 


The Capitol and grounds, Montgomery. 


The Governor receives $7,500 a year, and 
cannot be elected to succeed himself in office. 

The Governor is assisted in the execution 
of the laws of the State by a Lieutenant 
Governor, an Attorney General, a Secretary of 
State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, a Superinten¬ 
dent of Education, and a Commissioner of 
Agriculture and Industries. The Lieutenant 
Governor presides over the Senate at its 
sessions and acts as Governor in case of the 
removal of the Governor from office, or in case 
of his absence from the State for more than 
twenty days at a time. In case of the death I 


a term of four 
years, and no 
one of them may succeed himself in office. 

It is the business of the Judicial Department 
to make inquiry into the charges that may be 
brought against any citizen for 3 . judicial 
the violation of the law. This Department 
Department consists of a number of courts 
named in the order from highest to lowest, 
the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeals, 
Circuit Courts, Probate Courts, and such 
other courts as the Acts of the Legislature 
may authorize. 

The Supreme Court consists of seven mem¬ 
bers, one of whom presides over the Court 


to pass such laws for the people of the State 
as may seem best. If the Governor finds it 
necessary or desirable to do so, he may call 
the Legislature together in extra session. 

The chief executive officer is the Governor, 
who is elected once everv four years bv the 
2 . Executive votes of the people of the entire 
officers State. It is his duty to see that 

the laws of the State are obeyed by all the 
people, and to require other officers in the 
State and county to do their official work. 







ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


35 


at all of its sittings and is called the Chief 
•Justice. The other six are known as Asso¬ 
ciate Justices. This is the highest court in 
the State. Its authority in all State matters 
is final. If a man has violated a State law, 
he may finally have this case appealed to 
the Supreme Court if the lower courts have 
found him guilty. 

The Court of Appeals consists of one pre¬ 
siding Judge, and two others who are called 
Associate Justices. Before this Court may 
come cases of certain kinds prescribed by 

law. 

The State is divided into several judicial 
circuits, each with one or more judges before 
whom most of the more serious cases of vio¬ 
lation of the law are tried in the circuit 
court. These circuit judges hold from two 
to four sessions of court in each of the 
counties in their circuits within a year. 

The government of a county is similar in 
many respects to that of the State. There 
County is an executive, a legislative, 

government and a judicial department, 
though the duties of these three are not always 
separate and distinct from each other. 

The sheriff, who is elected once in every 
four years by a vote of the people of the 

1. Executive county, is at the head of the 

officers Executive Department. He is 

assisted in his work by some men whom he 
appoints as deputy sheriffs. It is the duty 
of the sheriff and his deputies to arrest and 
bring before judges for trial all persons who 
are legally charged with the violation of any 
law. 

The Legislative functions of a county are 
performed by a body of men called the Court 

2. Legislative of County Commissioners, or 

body the County Board of Revenue. 

This Court or Board is composed of five 
men. This Court or Board has charge of 
all public affairs in the county in which it 
is necessary to make improvements and they 
authorize the payment of money for all 
purposes. It builds roads and bridges and 


provides for the care of prisoners and 
paupers. 

The Probate Judge, who is elected by 
the votes of the people for a term of six 
years, is the chief judicial 3 . judicial 
officer for the county. Before officer 
him persons charged with the commission of 
certain kinds of offenses against the law are 
tried. From his office are issued such legal 
papers as marriage licenses, and permits to 
engage in certain kinds of business. He 
presides over the sessions of the Commis¬ 
sioners’ Court. 

The government of cities in Alabama is 
organized on a basis similar to city govera- 
that found in the county, and in ment 
the State. 

In some of the cities of the State bodies of 
men called Boards of Aldermen or City 
Councils are elected by the people for a term 
of years. In others, the governing bodies 
are known as Boards of Commissioners. 

The chief executive officer of a city is known 
as the Mayor, or as the President of the 
Board of Commissioners. Under x . Executive 
his direction members of the officers 
Police Force arrest violators of the law and 
bring them before him or before the city 
judge to be tried for their offenses. 

The legislative department of a city con¬ 
sists of the Mayor and Board of Aldermen, or 
of the Mayor and City Council Legislative 
or Board of Commissioners, department 
These pass laws for the government of the 
people of the city which are called ordinances. 

The people of Alabama must not only obey 
the laws of the county and the State, and of the 
cities in which they may live, but National 
they are subject also to the laws government 
made by the Congress of the United States. 
Since they must obey national laws, it is but 
fair that they should have a voice in the pass¬ 
ing of the laws under which they are to live. 

The Congress of the United States consists 
of two houses called the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives and the Senate. 




36 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


Each State elects by districts as many 
Congress of the representatives as the number 
United States 0 f people living in that State 
will warrant. 

Alabama has ten congressional districts, 
and therefore ten members in the House of 
i. House of Representatives. The coun- 
Representatives ties composing these districts 
are as follows: 


District 

Counties 

First 

Mobile, Washington, Monroe, Clarke, 
Choctaw, Marengo 

Second 

Escambia, Conecuh, Covington, Crenshaw, 
Butler, Wilcox, Montgomery, Pike, 
Baldwin 

Third 

Houston, Geneva, Coffee, Dale, Henry, 
Barbour, Bullock, Russell, Lee 

Fourth 

Cleburne, Calhoun, Talladega, Chilton, 
Shelby, Dallas 

Fifth 

Macon, Elmore, Tallapoosa, Chambers, 
Randolph, Clay, Coosa, Autauga, 
Lowndes 

Sixth 

Sumter, Greene, Hale, Bibb, Tuscaloosa, 
Perry 

Seventh 

Cherokee, Etowah, Saint Clair, Blount, 
Cullman, Marshall, DeKalb 

Eighth 

Jackson, Madison, Morgan, Lawrence, 
Limestone, Colbert, Lauderdale 

Ninth 

Jefferson 

Tenth 

Walker, Fayette, Lamar, Marion, Winston, 
Franklin, Pickens. 


Members of the House of Representatives 
are elected everv two years. It is the dutv 

*J */ V 

of a representative to assist in the passage of 
law r s in Congress that will benefit the people 
of his district and of the country at large. 

The Senate of the United States is com¬ 
posed of two members from each State with¬ 
out regard to the size of the 

2. The Senate 

State or the number of the peo¬ 
ple. The Senators are elected once every six 
years by the votes of the people of the State. 
It is the duty of the Senator from Alabama to 
assist in making helpful law r s for the people 
of the entire State and Nation. 

Members of the House of Representatives 


must be at least twenty-five years old, while 
members of the Senate must be thirty 
years old. Congress meets at the Capitol at 
Washington every year in December, and 
remains in session until all the necessary law r s 
have been passed, or until the time for ad¬ 
journment by law has been reached. 

1. Name the three branches of government in 
Alabama. 2. Discuss the election and the meet¬ 
ings of the Legislature. 3. What . 
are the duties of the Governor of °P 1 ^ a 
Alabama? 4. Name other execu- ^ ues 10ns 
tive officers of the State and mention their duties. 
5. Give the names of the courts of Alabama. 6. 
Who is the chief executive officer of a county and 
what are his duties? 7. Name the judicial officer 
of the county and tell what he does. 8. Describe 
the government of a city. 9. How many repre¬ 
sentatives does Alabama have in the Congress of 
the United States? 10. Into what two bodies is 
this Congress divided? 11. In what congressional 
district do you live ? 12. Who is the representative 

from your district? 13. Name the two United 
States Senators from Alabama. 14. Name all of 
the counties in your district. 

X. Counties and Cities 

Autauga is the only county in Alabama the 
name of which begins with the first letter of 
the alphabet. It is situated 
near the center of the State. utau £ a 
The Alabama River forms its entire southern 
border. Prattville, the county seat, is 
the largest town. The Pratt Gin Works, an 
immense plant for the manufacture of cotton 
gins, is situated here. Autaugaville and 
Marbury are two other important towns in 
this county. Prattville is also the location 
of the county high school. 

Baldwin, the largest county of the State, is 
located in the southwestern part on Mobile 
Bay. The soil and climate are ^ ^ 

adapted to the raising of a great 
variety of agricultural products. Sw r eet po¬ 
tatoes, rice, sugar cane, figs, and Satsuma 
oranges which have recently been intro¬ 
duced grow r in great abundance. Bay Mi 
nette is the county seat and largest town. 











ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


37 



Daphne on Mobile Bay is the site of one of 
the State normal schools. 

Barbour County lies toward the southeast 
corner of the State on the border of Georgia. 
Barbour Agriculture is the most im¬ 
portant industry. Clayton 
is the county seat, while Eufaula is the 
largest and most important town. The 
county high school is at Clio. 

Bibb County is in the mineral district 
slightly to the west of the center of the State. 

, Center- 

Bibb 

VILLE IS 
the county seat 
and largest town, 
and the location 
of the county 
high school. 

Blocton and 
Piper are other 
mining towns in 
the county. 

Blount County 
is in the north 
central 
portion 
of the State. 

Agriculture and 
mining are the 
leading occupa¬ 


tions. One- 
onta, the county 
seat, is also the 
location of the county 
Blountsville has 
agricultural schools, 
is a health resort 


Blount 


are the chief occupations of its people. 
Greenville, the county seat, is a beautiful 
little city of fine homes and 
cultured people. Georgiana Butler 
and McKenzie are prosperous towns in rich 
agricultural districts. 

Calhoun County lies on the border of the 
Piedmont Plateau toward the northeastern 
part of the State. Agriculture, 
lumbering, and mining are the < " alhoun 
leading industries. Anniston is the county 


Courtesy of Alabama Power company 


Children’s school garden, Blocton. 


high 
one of the 
Blount 
with noted 


school. 

district 

Springs 

mineral 


Bullock 


springs. 

Bullock County is in the Black Belt in the 
southeastern part of the State. Union 
Springs, the county seat, is the 
center of trade for a rich agri¬ 
cultural territory. Midway and Fitzpat¬ 
rick are other towns of importance. 

Butler County occupies the south central 
part of the State. Agriculture and lumbering 


seat and largest town. It is important as a 
manufacturing city and is noted for the 
beauty of its location. Camp McClellan, 
for the training of United States soldiers, is 
situated here. Jacksonville is another im¬ 
portant town in this county. It has manu¬ 
facturing enterprises and a large trade in 
agricultural products. One of the Class A 
normal schools of the State is situated here. 
This school has for many years sent its 
graduates into the public schools of the State 
where they have done excellent work and 
reflected the thorough training which this 










38 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 




Chilton 


Courtesy of Alaoama Power Company 
A street scene at night, Anniston. 


school gives. Oxford, the seat of the county 
high school, has an attractive situation on a 
large and beautiful lake. 

Chambers County is in the eastern part of 
the State on the 


seat, has the county 
high school. Gayles- 
ville and Leesburg 
are other important 
places in this county. 

Chilton County is 
almost in the center 
of the 
State. 

Agriculture and lum¬ 
bering are the chief 
industries here. 
Clanton, the county 
seat, is the location 
of the county high 
school. Thorsby 
and Maplesville 
are two other im¬ 
portant places. 
Mountain Creek is 
the site of the Ala¬ 
bama Confederate 
Soldiers’ Home. 
Choctaw County 
lies on the border of Mississippi 
in the southwestern part of the 
State. Butler, the county seat, is also the 
location of the county high school. Mount 


Choctaw 


border of 


Chambers 


Georgia. 

Lafay¬ 


ette is 
the county seat and 
largest town. Mill- 
town is the seat of 
the county high 
school, while Lanett 
and Langdale have 
large cotton fac¬ 
tories. 

Cherokee County 
borders Georgia in 
the northeastern part 
of the 
State. 
Center, the county 


Cherokee 


Bathing at Oxford Lake. 


Courtesy of Alabama Power Company 

























ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


39 




Clarke 


Sterling and Gil- 
bertown are im¬ 
portant towns. 

Clarke County is 
in the southwest 
portion 
of the 
State between the 
Tombigbee and the 
Alabama rivers. 

Grove Hill is the 
county seat, and 
also the location of 
the county high 
school. Jackson 
is the site of the 
First District agri¬ 
cultural school. 

Thomasville and 

Whatley are towns of importance. 

Clay County is in the east central portion 
of the State. Mining and agriculture are the 
important industries. Graphite 
and mica are both found in con¬ 
siderable quantities in this county. Ashland 
is the county seat, and the site of the county 
high school. Lineville has the Northeast 
Alabama Agricultural and Industrial Institute. 

Cleburne County borders Georgia a little 
north of the central portion of the State. 


is 

seat 


and 


Cleburne 


Courtesy Dept, of Agriculture 
Grapes, Chilton County. 


Clay 


IIeflin 
county 
the lo¬ 
cation 
of the county high 
school. Edwards- 
ville and Hope- 
well are other 

towns in this 
county. 

Coffee County is 
in the southeastern 
portion 
of the 
State near the 

Florida border. 
Elba is the county 
seat, though there 
is a branch court 
Enterprise is an inl¬ 
and the location of 


Coffee 


Colbert 


Birthplace of Helen Keller, Tuscumbia. 


house at Enterprise. 
portant trading center 
the county high school. 

Colbert County is in the northwest corner 
of the State on the Mississippi border. Tus¬ 
cumbia is the county seat and 
an important railroad center. 

Sheffield near by is a manufacturing and 
railroad town. Near this place the United 
States Government has recently located a 
nitrate plant to cost twenty million dollars. 

Leighton has 
the county high 
school. 

Conecuh Coun¬ 
tv is in the south- 
*/ 

ern por- „ 

. „ Conecuh 

tion ot 

the State near 
the Florida bor¬ 
der. Evergreen 
is the county 
seat and has 
the agricultural 
school for the 
Second District. 
The Baptist Or- 


















40 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



pbanage for the State is located here. 
Castleberry is the site of the county high 
school and the center of a rich market gar¬ 
dening section. 

Coosa County is slightly to the east of the 
central part of the State. Rockford is the 
county seat, and also the loca¬ 
tion of the county high school. 
Goodwater and Kellyton are other im¬ 
portant towns in this county. Immense 
plants for the manufacture of graphite have 


Coosa 


Covington 


County court house, Tuscumbia. 

been erected in many portions of Coosa 
County. 

Covington County is in the extreme south¬ 
ern portion on the Florida border. Anda¬ 
lusia, the county seat, is a 
thriving trading center. One 
of its important industries is the packing 
plant which consumes many hogs and cattle 
per day. Florala, the site of the county 
high school, has an attractive location on a 
beautiful lake. Lockhart has immense lum¬ 
bering plants. Opp and Red Level are 
other important places in this county. 

Crenshaw County is in the southern portion 
of the State, a little to the east 
of the center. Luverne, the 
county seat, has a valuable trade in agricul¬ 


Cullman 


Crenshaw 


tural products. The county high school is 
at Highland Home. Petrie and Brantley 
are other towns in Crenshaw County. 

Cullman County is situated on Brindlee 
Mountain in the north central portion of the 
State. Cullman, the county 
seat and largest town, is also 
the location of the county high school. Here 
the Orphanage of the Independent Order of 
Odd Fellows and St. Bernard College are lo¬ 
cated. A colony of naturalized Germans 
settled here many years ago. 
Through their habits of thrift 
they have made the section 
noted for garden products and 
fine fruits. Joppa is a pros¬ 
perous rural village and an 
important educational point. 
Yinemont and Garden City 
are other towns in Cullman 
County. 

Dale County is located in 
southeast Alabama. Ozark is 
the county seat 
and most impor¬ 
tant town. Newton has the 
Baptist Collegiate Institute. 
Midland City and Pinckard 
are important small towns. 

Dallas County is slightly southeast of the 
center of the State in the Black Belt. The 
raising of fine stock divides the 
interests of its people with the 
culture of cotton. Selma is the county seat, 
the largest city of western Alabama, and 
one of the most important in the State. Its 
situation on the banks of the Alabama River 
gives it a very beautiful site. It is an im¬ 
portant trading center for a large agricultural 
section. Cotton warehouses, railroad shops, 
oil mills, and woodworking plants are among 
its leading industries. It has beautiful streets, 
fine artesian water and elegant homes. Its 
educational advantages consist of a splendid 
system of public schools for both races, and 
two large denominational schools for negroes. 


Dale 


Dallas 











ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


41 



DeKalb 


The orphanage for the Methodists of Ala¬ 
bama is located here. Plantersville has 
the county high school. 

DeKalb County occupies the northeast 
section of the State. The surface is broken 
by two parallel mountains of 
great natural beauty. These 
are Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain. 
Mining and agri¬ 
culture consti¬ 
tute the leading 
occupations of 
the people. Fort 
Payne is the 
county seat and 
the location of 
the county high 
school. Col¬ 
linsville and 
Valley Head 
are important 
trading centers, 
while Mentone 
is a noted health 
and pleasure re¬ 
sort. 

Elmore Coun¬ 
ty is in the cen¬ 
tral part 
of the 
State on the 
border of the 
Black Belt and 
the Piedmont 
Plateau. Lum- 


Escambia 


Escambia County is situated in the south¬ 
ern part of the State on the border of Florida. 
The manufacture of lumber and 
the cultivation of the soil are the 
chief occupations of its people. Brewton, 
the county seat, is one of the richest towns, 
according to population, in the United States. 
Atmore is the seat of the county high 


Elmore 


Courtesy Dept. 6) Agriculture 


bering and agriculture are the chief indus¬ 
tries. Wetumpka on the Coosa River is 
the county seat. The agricultural school 
for the Fifth District is located here. 
Another State institution of importance 
that is found here is the penitentiary, where 
persons convicted of crime serve their sen¬ 
tences and work for the State. Tallassee 
on the Tallapoosa River has large cotton 
factories. Eclectic is the site of the county 
high school. 


Alfalfa, winter feed for live stock. 

Pollard is another town of im- 


school. 
portance. 

Etowah County is in the northeastern part 
of the State in the division called the Coal 
Fields. Agriculture, mining, £towah 
manufacturing, and lumbering 
are all carried on extensively and profitably 
in this county. 

Gadsden, the county seat, is a beautiful 
city situated on the Coosa River, sur¬ 
rounded by mountains containing coal and 









42 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


iron deposits in great quantities. The tops 
of the mountains as well as the valleys be¬ 
tween abound in forest trees of many 
varieties of useful timber. The manufactur¬ 
ing industries are those relating for the most 
part to iron and timber. Immense plants for 
the manufacture of such articles as brick, 
pottery, drainage pipe, fertilizers, and harness 
are found. Some of the largest mills for the 
making of steel fencing wire and wire nails to 
be found anywhere are seen in Gadsden. 



Steel by-products plant, Gadsden. 


sist of products of lumber, iron, and gram. 
It is important also as a railroad center. 
Etowah County high school is situated here. 
A good street railway system connects At- 
talla, Alabama City, and Gadsden, thus 
making of the three one long city busy with 
trade and industry. 

Fayette County is toward the northwest 
corner of the State on the bor- 
der between the Coal Fields and ayette 
the Black Belt. Mining, agriculture, and 


Gadsden has a fine system of public schools 
that are a source of pride to its citizens. 

Alabama City, just two miles away, is a 
cotton mill town. Here is located the Dwight 
Manufacturing Company, one of the largest 
and best arranged plants of its kind in any 
State. In the building of homes for its 
employees, the provision of means for recrea¬ 
tion and improvement, and in the attention 
given to the education and moral training 
of the children of the operatives, no place 
does better than Alabama City. 

Attalla, just five miles from Gadsden, is 
an important center of commerce and manu¬ 
facturing enterprises. Its manufactories con- 


lumbering are the chief occupations. Natural 
gas has been found in paying quantities in 
some portions of the county. Fayette, the 
county seat, is the location of the county high 
school, and the largest and most important 
town. Glen Allen (partly in Marion County) 
and Berry are other towns in the county. 

Franklin County lies toward the north¬ 
western corner of the State on the border of 

Mississippi. Lumbering, min- 

i • i, ,, Franklin 

mg, and agriculture receive the 

attention of the people of this county. Rus¬ 
sellville, the county seat and site of the 
county high school, is the largest town. 
Around this place are found numerous iron 


















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


43 



ingpoint. Hart¬ 
ford, near the 
center of the 
conntv, is a very 
thriving trading 
center and the 
site of the county 
high school. 
Slocomb and 
Samson are two 
other important 
towns in this 
county. 

Greene Coun¬ 
ty is in the Black 

_ Belt in 

Greene ., 

the west 

central portion 
of the State. It 
is almost sur- 


Alabama thoroughbreds in pleasant pastures. 


rounded by the 
Sipsey and the 
Black Warrior rivers. The chief occupa¬ 
tion of the people is the raising of stock, 
grains, and cotton. Eutaw is the county 
seat and chief town. Knoxville and 
Boligee are places of importance. 

Hale County lies in the Black Belt in the 
west central part of the State. Various 
branches of agriculture and the 
Hale raising of fine stock are the chief 

occupations. 

Greensboro, the county seat, is an old 
town containing fine homes and cultured 
people. For many years the Southern Uni¬ 


of the people. Abbeville is the county seat, 
and the location of the Third District agri¬ 
cultural school. Headland is the seat of the 
county high school and an important trading 
center. Haleburg and Newville are other 
towns in this county. 

Houston County lies in the extreme south¬ 
eastern corner of the State on the border of 
Georgia and Florida. Agricul- 
ture in all of its varieties is suc¬ 
cessfully carried on in this county. Especial 
attention is given to the raising of peanuts 
and fine hogs. In the year 1917 this county 


mines and foundries. Red cedar timber, to 
be used in the manufacture of pencils, is cut 
in large quantities on the mountains. Red 
Bay and Hodges are other places of impor¬ 
tance in this county. 

Geneva County lies in the southeastern 
portion of the State on the Florida border. 
Geneva Agriculture, stock raising, and 

lumbering are the occupations 
of its people. Geneva is the county seat and 
important trad- 


versity, a Methodist institution for the edu¬ 
cation of men, was located here. Mound- 
ville is the seat of one of the Class B normal 
schools of the State, and Akron is a railroad 
center. 

Henry County is in the southeastern 
corner of the State on the Chattahoochee 
River. Agriculture, in which 
this county ranks among the Henry 
best in the State, is the leading occupation 







44 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


shipped 360 carloads of hogs and sold more 
than a million dollars’worth of peanuts. 

Dothan is the county seat and the largest 
city south of Montgomery except Mobile. It 
is a center of trade for an immense territory 
in southeast Alabama, southwest Georgia, and 
west Florida. Three rai 1 roads and numerous 
automobile routes furnish means of trans¬ 
portation for raw materials and commercial 
products. It has numerous manufacturing 
plants relating chiefly to cotton, grain, and 


vegetables. Its schools have long been 
recognized as among the best of the small 
cities of the State. Dothan is the home of 
the southeast Alabama Fair. In point of 
attendance upon its annual exhibits, in the 
variety of products shown, and in the general 
educational value of its exhibits it excels other 
similar enterprises of the State. 

Columbia is an important river town and 
trading center. The county high school is 
located here. Ashford and Cottonwood 
are two other thriving towns in this county. 

Jackson County occupies the extreme 


northeastern corner of the State and borders 
both Tennessee and Georgia. The Ten¬ 
nessee River flows through this 

. . , . , Jackson 

county towards its eastern side, 

separating the rich valley section from the 
fertile Sand Mountain area. The Cumber¬ 
land Plateau separates the main portion of 
the Tennessee Valiev from the rich and 
prosperous Paint Rock Valley. The coves, 
valleys, and plateaus of this county are rich 
in agricultural products. Cotton, grain, and 

live stock are 
raised in great 
abundance. The 
mountain sides 
and the creek 
bottoms have an 
abundance of all 
kinds of hard¬ 
woods. Red 
cedar, oak, hick¬ 
ory, and poplar 
are the chief 
varieties. 

Bridgeport, 
an important 
shipping and 
manufacturing 
city, has a beau¬ 
tiful location on 
a bluff of the 
Tennessee River. 
Stevenson is a 
thriving trading town and an important 
railroad center. Scottsboro, the county 
seat and location of the county high school, 
receives the trade of an immense section 
of the rich agricultural territory between 
the Cumberland Plateau and the Sand 
Mountain. Its water supply is furnished by 
natural pressure from a spring on the top of 
one of the Cumberland Peaks two miles away. 

Woodville is a thriving village of sturdy 
and hospitable people. It has an extensive 
trade in all kinds of agricultural products, 
timber, poultry, and live stock. At various 



Model hog farm, Dothan. 















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


45 



A bird’s-eye view, Birmingham. 


Limes throughout the period of the War 
between the States, the Federal soldiers were 
encamped in and around this place. History 
fails to record many skirmishes that took 
place between these and the Confederate 
soldiers. 

Jefferson County lies in the north central 
part of the State in the mineral section. 

Mining, manufacturing and 
Jefferson agriculture occupy the atten¬ 
tion of the people of this county. The 
population is found for the most part in cities 
and towns, and the people are therefore urban 
rather than rural in their occupations and 
habits of life. For the most part the surface 
is composed of high ridges and alternate 
valleys. It is a natural mining section for 
the reason that coal, iron, and limestone, the 
three minerals necessary for the production 
of iron products, are found within a few miles 
of each other. No other region in the world 


is known in which the minerals necessary for 
the production of iron ore are found in such 
abundance so close together. It is no wonder 
then that Jefferson County and the surround¬ 
ing regions constitute one of the most im¬ 
portant mining sections in the world. 

Birmingham is the county seat and largest 
city in the State. Because of its growth from 
the time of its founding in 1871 to a city of 
immense population and wealth in 1918, it is 
appropriately called the “Magic City.’’ The 
rapidity of its growth is shown by the United 
States census. Because of the importance 
of its iron industries it has been called 
the “Pittsburg of the South.” Immense 
rolling mills, iron furnaces, and steel plants 
are found inside of the city and in small 
places near by. 

As a railroad center, Birmingham ranks 
first among the cities of the State, and it is 
one of the most important of the South. The 























BIRMINGHAM 




Wma.Eog.Co., N. Y. 





















































































































































































































































































































































































ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


47 



Entrance to Bayview coal mines. 



Courtesy 7'cnnessee Coal, Iron, and Railway Company 
Coal vein before shooting. 


twelve railroads running into two large 
terminal stations furnish transportation for 
manufactured and commercial products to all 
states of this section, to many cities of the 
North, East, and West, as well as to several 
foreign countries. 

The educational facilities of Birmingham 
consist of a system of public schools that has 
grown in extent and efficiency to keep pace 
with the marvelous growth of the city in 
other respects. Many private and denomi¬ 
national schools are located here. Howard 
College, supported by the Baptists of the 
State for the higher education of young men 
and young women, has a beautiful location 
at East Lake. Likewise Birmingham-South¬ 
ern College is supported by the Methodists of 
Alabama and is situated at Owenton. Among 



other public buildings which beautify and 
serve the city may be mentioned its well- 
appointed libraries, its handsome and com¬ 
modious churches, its towering office build¬ 
ings, and modern hotels. 

Ensley and Fairfield have large plants 
for the turning out of the finished iron and 
steel products. The county high school is 
located at Boyles. 

Lamar County lies on the Mississippi 
border, slightly toward the northwestern part 
of the State. Its chief indus¬ 
tries are agriculture and lumber¬ 
ing. Vernon, the county seat, is the location 
of the county high school. Sulligent and 
Millport are two important trading points 
in the county. 

Lauderdale County is in the extreme 



Courtesy Tennessee Coal, Iron, ana Rallivay Company 


Hauling coal out of the mine by electric power. 


Coal vein after shooting. 











48 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


northwestern corner of the State, bordering 
Tennessee and Mississippi. Agriculture 

and lumbering constitute the 
Lauderdale , J , 

leading industries which engage 

the attention of the people of the county. 
Florence, the county seat, is the largest city, 
.t ii of importance because it is the seat of 
the oldest and one- of the most suc¬ 
cessful of the Class A normal schools. The 
buildings, equipment, and faculty of this 
institution are such as to guarantee to the 
people of the State a satisfactory quality of 
work in the training of teachers for the public 
schools. The people of the town have pro- 


Lawrence County is one of the north¬ 
western group of counties. It is chiefly an 

agricultural countv. Moul- , 

. . . Lawrence 

ton, the county seat, is the 

location of the county high school. Court- 

land is an important trading and shipping 

center. Wheeler, in a rich agricultural 

section, was the home of General Joseph 

Wheeler, a Confederate Commander in the 

War between the States and for many years 

a representative in the Congress of the United 

States from the eighth Alabama district. 

Lee County is in the east central part of the 

State, on the Georgia border. Agriculture 



Laborers’ quarters, government nitrate plant, Muscle Shoals. 


vided a system of public schools that are a 
source of interest and pride. The location 
by the United States Government of a plant 
for the manufacture of nitrate has added 
greatly to the population, wealth, and general 
activities of the people of Florence. On the 
Tennessee River near Florence are found the 
Muscle Shoals. For the improvement of 
navigation at this point the Government of 
the United States has spent millions of 
dollars. When complete this piece of public 
engineering will mark an era of commercial 
and industrial progress for the northern sec¬ 
tion of the State. Rogersville is the seat 
of the county high school, while Cloverdale 
and Waterloo are other towns in the county. 


and the manufacture of agricultural prod¬ 
ucts occupy the chief attention of the 
people. Opelika is the county L 
seat and the largest city. It 
has large plants for the manufacture of cotton 
goods and grain products. It has a good 
system of public schools and a number of 
beautiful churches. Phcenix City has im¬ 
mense plants for the manufacture of cotton. 
Auburn is an educational center of much 
consequence. A good public school, the 
county high school, and the Alabama Poly¬ 
technic Institute furnish thorough courses of 
instruction in all branches from the primary 
grades through college subjects. 

Limestone County lies in the Tennessee 



























ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


49 



Limestone 


Lowndes 


Valley and borders the State of Tennessee. 
It is chiefly an agricultural county devoted 
to the raising of grain, cotton, 
and live stock. Athens, the 
county seat, is an important trading point 
and educational center. The agricultural 
school for the Eighth District is located here. 
Here is found. Athens college for young 
women maintained by the Methodists of the 
North Alabama Conference. A good public 
school and a successful Preparatory School are 
also maintained here. Elkmont is the seat 
of the county high school, and 
Mooresville is another point of 
importance. 

Lowndes County is in the 
Black Belt section of the State, 
south of the cen¬ 
tral part. Its in¬ 
dustries are agriculture and stock 
raising. The county seat is 
Hayneville and the countv 
high school is located at Fort 
Deposit. Lowndesboro and 
Letohatchee are other towns 
in this county. 

Macon County is near the 
eastern part of the State, in the 
Black Belt. Agri¬ 
culture is the chief 
occupation, while the manufacture of wood 
products receives some attention. Tuskegee 
is the county seat and principal town. Large 
trees and beautiful homes of colonial type are 
seen here. It is the site of the Tuskegee Nor¬ 
mal and Industrial Institute for the training of 
negro men and women, which ranks among the 
best of its kind in the world. Notasulga 
is the site of the county high school. 

Madison County lies in the Tennessee Val¬ 
ley and borders the State of Tennessee. Agri¬ 
culture, lumbering, and manu¬ 
facturing occupy the attention 
of the people. Huntsville, the county seat, 
is the largest city in the Tennessee Valley. 
It is a beautiful town and is important in his¬ 


Macon 


Madison 


tory because it was for a short time the capital 
of the State. It has immense manufactories 
for the spinning of cotton. A good system 
of public schools and splendid private schools 
furnish educational advantages for the chil¬ 
dren of Huntsville. Huntsville is famous for 
its big spring which furnishes the water supply 
for the city, and is a place of interest for 
visitors. At Normal, near Huntsville, is lo¬ 
cated the state normal school for the training 
of negro teachers, and for giving instruction 
in industrial branches. New Market and 


Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee. 


Marengo 


Madison are towns of importance in this 
county. Gurley is the location of the 
county high school. 

Marengo County lies in the Black Belt 
section, and its people are actively engaged 
in agricultural pursuits. The 
county seat is at Linden, while 
the county high school is at Thomaston. 
Myrtlewood and Dayton are two thriving 
towns in this county. 

Marion County lies toward the northwest of 
the State, on the border of Mississippi. Ham¬ 
ilton, an inland town, is the 
county seat, and is the location of 
the agricultural school for the Tenth District. 
The people are occupied for the most part in 


Marion 











50 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Big Spring, Huntsville. 


agriculture and lumbering. Other important 
towns of this county are Guin, the site of the 
county high school, Winfield, and Hackle- 
burg. 

Marshall County lies partly in the Tennes¬ 
see Valley and partly on Sand Mountain, in 


the northeastern part of the State. Its rich 
valleys and fertile sand plateaus make it an 
important agricultural county. 
Huntersville, on the len- 
nessee River, is the county seat and the site of 
the county high school. Albertville on 



Peach orchard, Alabama Experiment Station. ' 









ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


51 



Sand Mountain has a branch court house, and 
is the location of one of the agricultural schools 
for the Seventh District. Boaz and Arab 
are important trading centers in Marshall 
County. 

Mobile County is in the extreme southwest¬ 
ern portion of the State, on Mobile Bay and 

Mobile the Mississippi Sound. Agri¬ 

culture and the manufacture of 
lumber are the chief 
occupations of the people 
outside of the city of 
Mobile. 

Mobile, the county 
seat, is not only the 
oldest city in the State, 
but it is one of chief 
historical importance. 

During the 102 years 
from the time of its 
foundation to the close 
of the War of 1812 it 
was under the control 
of four nations. The 
French held it from 1711 
to 1763, the British from 
1763 to 1780, the Spanish 
from 1780 to 1813, and 
the Americans from 1813 
to 1861. From 1861 to 
1865 it was under the 
control of the Confeder¬ 
ate States of America. 

It can thus be seen that 
five flags have floated 
over this old city. 

Mobile is one of the largest ports for the 
export of cotton on the southern coast. It 
has a large trade in timber and lumber, and 
is the center for a large area of territory given 
to truck farming. Many tropical fry its from 
Cuba, South and Central America, as well as 
agricultural products of Mexico and the 
Yucatan Peninsula find their way to the 
southern parts of the United States through 
the. Port of Mobile. River steamers and 


railroads make it a center for domestic 
commerce of a large and important area 
of the State. Its public school system 
and important private institutions furnish 
educational facilities for the people of the 
city. Mobile is the seat of the Mobile 
Medical (Allege, also of Spring Hill College, 
a noted Catholic school. It has beautiful 
streets, and spacious homes which are shaded 


by magnificent trees, many of them hun¬ 
dreds of years old. Splendid church build¬ 
ings of attractive architecture are found 
here. 

Monroe County is in the southwest portion 
of the State. Its industries are chiefly lum¬ 
bering and agriculture. Mon- , 

. , , . Monroe 

roeville, the county seat, is 

the largest town and the seat of the county 
high school. Burnt Corn is of historical 


Courtesy Overby Studio 

A steel vessel being launched from the ways of one of the shipbuilding 

yards of Mobile. 












Mobile and vicinity. 
















































































































ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


53 



Montgomery 


importance on account of the 
great Indian battle that was 
fought there in the early history 
of the State. Jones Mill and 
Perdue Htll are thriving towns 
of this county. 

Montgomery County is situated 
slightly to the southeast and 
center of the State, 
in the Black Belt. 

Agriculture and stock raising are 
the occupations of the people 
except in the city. 

Montgomery, the county seat 
and capital of the State, has a 
beautiful location on a high bluff 
of the Alabama River. The 
volume of trade exceeds that of 
other cities in the central portion 
of the State. Several railroads 
pass through the city, while 
others terminate there. A splen¬ 
did system of public highways 
runs out of the city into adjacent 
territory. Over these Toads are 

brought to the city the products of the farmers | for miles around. Railroad shops, fertilizer 


Country Univtrsuy oj Aiaou/na 

Surgeon-General William C. Gorgas, a native of Mobile. 






















54 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Montgomery and vicinity. 


























































































































































































































































































































ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


55 



maintained by 
the Methodist 
Church of the 
State, is located 
here. Among 
other public 
buildings may be 
mentioned the 
MasonicTemple, 

Pythian Temple, 
the Masonic 
Home for Wid¬ 
ows and Or¬ 
phans, and the 
Carnegie Li¬ 
brary. 

Montgomery 
is of great his¬ 
toric importance. 

It was the Capi¬ 
tal of the Con¬ 
federate States of America for a short while 
in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated 
as the first President of the Confederate 
States at Montgomery in 1861. 

Camp Sheridan, for the training of soldiers, 
has been established here recently by the 
United States Government. Taylor Field, 
for the training of young men for the aviation 
service of the United States, has recently been 
established at Pike Road near Montgomery. 
Ramer, another town in Montgomery County, 
is the site of the county high school. 

Morgan County is located in the northern 
part of the State, in the Tennessee Valley. 


The interior of a silk mill, Albany. 


tilizers, and extracts. The crossing of two 
important railroad systems furnishes excellent 
facilities for transportation in addition to that 
supplied by boats that navigate the Tennessee 
River. Both cities have splendid public 
schools, ample church facilities, and good 
hotels. Hartsells is the seat of the county 
high school, and Falkville is a town of im¬ 
portance. 

Perry County is in the Black Belt, toward 
the west central portion of the State. Agri¬ 
culture is the principal occupa¬ 
tion. Marion, the county seat, 
is an important educational center. A good 


Perry 


factories, oil mills, carriage factories, grist 
mills, and cotton factories are the chief 
industries. Handsome residences, splendid 
avenues, artesian water, and fine church 
build ngs make the city an attractive place 
in which to live. Its good system of 
public schools, and several private institu¬ 
tions, furnish ample educational facilities. 
The Woman’s College of Alabama, a splendid 
institution for the higher education of 
young women, 


Its rich valley soil and its thickly wooded 
mountains make agriculture and lumbering 
the leading occupations of its 
people. Decatur, on the Tennessee Morgan 
River, is important as a manufacturing and 
shipping point. Albany, the county seat, 
formerly called New Decatur, is situated 
near by. These two cities are important 
for the manufacture of such things as car 
wheels, lumber, leather, cotton goods, fer¬ 








56 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



Courtesy Alabama Power Compu..j 

Street scene, Albany. 


public school, the County High School, 
Marion Military Institute, Marion Seminary, 
and Judson College are located here. At 
Uniontown is an Agricultural Experiment 
Station, a branch of the one at Auburn. 

Pickens County is in the western part of 
the State, on the Mississippi border. Its sur- 
_ , face and soil are adapted to agri- 

culture. Carrollton is the 
county seat and leading town. Reform is 
the site of the county high school. Gordo 
is one of the important towns. 

Pike County is situated in the southeast 
corner of the State, in the wire grass section. 

Agriculture and the manufac¬ 
ture of agricultural and lumber 
products are the leading occupations of the 
people. Troy, the county seat, is also the 
location of one of the Class A normal schools. 
Several hundred young men and young 
women each year secure inspiration and train¬ 
ing from a faculty of trained and cultured 
men and women who direct the activities 
of this school. Troy is a city of beautiful 
homes, splendid streets, elegant churches, and a 


Pike 


Randolph 


good system of public schools. Its commerce 
consists of agricultural supplies, live stock, 
and manufactured goods. Many thousands 
of bales of cotton are bought and sold here 
each year. It manufactures lumber, fertil¬ 
izers, handles, spokes, etc. Two railroads 
provide fine transportation. Brundidge is 
the seat of the county high school. 

Randolph County is in the eastern part 
of the State, on the border of Georgia. Agri¬ 
culture and lumbering furnish 
occupation for most of the 
people. Wedowee is the county seat and the 
location of the county high school. Roanoke 
is important as a commercial and educational 
center. Wadley is among the prosperous 
towns. 

Russell County is in the northern part of 
the Black Belt on the Georgia border. Seale 
is the county seat. Girard is 
an important manufacturing 
place. Hurtsboro is a trade center for a 
rich agricultural section. 

Shelby County is near the central part of 
the State, in the mineral section. Agriculture, 


Russell 

















ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


57 




Shelby 


mining, and the 
manufacture of 
iron prod¬ 
ucts are 
the chief occu¬ 
pations of the 
people. Co¬ 
lumbiana, the 
county seat and 
location of the 
county high 
school, is the 
most important 
town. Monte- 
vallo is the site 
of the Girls’ 

Technical Insti¬ 
tute.; Calera is an important railroad center, 
and Shelby Springs a noted health resort. 

St. Clair County lies to the northeast of the 
central portion of the State. The surface is 
made, up of mountains and val¬ 
leys. Ashville is the county 
seat. Pell City has a branch court house. 
The county high school is located at Oden- 
ville. Other towns of importance are 
Springville and Ragland. 

Sumter County is in the Black Belt in the 




St. Clair 


Talladega County court house. Cotton bales in the square, awaiting shipment. 


western part of the State, on the border of 
Mississippi. Its soil is adapted to the rais¬ 
ing of vegetables, grain, and 
live stock. Livingston, the umter 
county seat, is the location of a Class A nor¬ 
mal school. This institution is doing an ex¬ 
cellent work, furnishing a supply of trained 
teachers. Cuba is the shipping point for a 
rich market gardening section. Gainesville 
is a town of historic importance. The 
county high school is located at York. 

Talladega County 
lies slightly northeast 

of the , 

Talledega 

center 

of the State. Its 
surface is made rug¬ 
ged by alternate 
mountains and val¬ 
leys. The people 
engage in agriculture, 
lumbering, and min¬ 
ing. Talladega, 
the county seat, is a 
beautiful old city, 
which has an impor¬ 
tant part in historical 
and educational 
matters. Bloody 


Marble quarry, Sylacauga. 



















58 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 



battles against the Indians were fought near 
here in the early history of the State. The 
State maintains here institutions for the train¬ 
ing of deaf mutes, and persons totally or 
partially blind. The county high school is 
located at Lincoln. Sylacauga is known for 
its cotton factories and marble quarries. The 
agricultural school for the Fourth District is 
located here. Childersburg and Gantt’s 
Quarry are prosperous towns. 


Tallapoosa 


The gymnasium, University of 

Tallapoosa County occupies the east central 
portion of the State. The chief occupation is 
agriculture, though some lum¬ 
bering is carried on. This 
county is important in history because the last 
great Indian battle was fought here at Horse¬ 
shoe Bend. Dadeville is the county seat 
and location of the county high school. 
Alexander City and (’amp Hill are two 
places of importance in this county. 

Tuscaloosa County is in the coal fields sec¬ 
tion of the State, just west of the 
center. The soil is adapted to 
all kinds of agriculture, while valuable min- 


Tuscaloosa 


eral products are found. Tuscaloosa, the 
county seat and largest city, is noted in his¬ 
tory, education, and industry, and was at one 
time the capital of the State. The University 
of Alabama has been located here from the 
time of its institution. Within recent years 
there has been a marvelous development of in¬ 
dustrial enterprises in and around Tuscaloosa. 
It has immense lumber mills, compresses, 
machine shops, and foundries. Ample trans¬ 
portation facili¬ 
ties are furnished 
by boats on the 
Black Warrior 
River, and by 
the crossing of 
several impor¬ 
tant railroad 
systems. The 
Bryce Hospital 
for the Insane, 
one of the most 
famous and suc¬ 
cessful institu¬ 
tions of its kind 
in the world, is 
located here. 

Walker County 
lies a little north • 
east of the cen- 
Aiabama. tral portion of 

the State. Min¬ 
ing and the manufacture of 
mine products are the chief 
occupations, though agriculture is included. 
Jasper, the county seat and site of the 
county high school, engages extensively in a 
variety of manufactories. Carbon Hill is 
extensively engaged in mining projects. 
Cordova lias a large cotton mill. Dora 
and Oakman are mining and manufacturing 
towns. 

Washington County is in the southwestern 
part of the State, in the Gulf 
Coastal Plain. The chief in- Washing,on 
dustries are agriculture and lumber. Chatom 


Walker 











ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


59 



is the county seat and the location of the 
county high school. Fruitdale is the 
center of a market gardening region. 
\ inegar Bend has one of the largest lum¬ 
bering plants in the State. 

Y\ ilcox Countv 


Wilcox 


lies a little south¬ 
east of the 
central 
portion of the State, 
in the Black Belt. 

Its leading occu¬ 
pation is agricul¬ 
ture. Its products 
are cotton, grain, 
and live stock. 

Camden is the 
county seat and the 
site of the county 
high school. Pine¬ 
apple and Snow 
Hill are important 
trade centers. 

Winston County 
is northwest of the 
center of 
the State. 

The surface is com¬ 
posed of mountains 
and valleys. Agri¬ 
culture, lumbering, 
and mining receive the attention of the 
people. Double Springs is the county 
seat, and also the location of the county 
high school. The most important trade and 
railroad center in the county is Haleyville. 


Winston 


Lest we forget.” Confederate monument, Jasper 


Topical 

questions 


1. In what county do you live? 2. Locate 
your county, and give the leading industries of its 
people. 3. Bound your county. 
4. Give the county seat and other 
important towns. 5. Give the lo¬ 
cation of the county high school for your county. 
6. Does your county have any other educational or 
other State institution? 7. What counties border 
Tennessee? S. Name those counties that touch 
Georgia. 9. Give a list of the counties on the 
southern border of the State. 10. What are the 


border counties on the western side of the State? 
11. Give the names of four counties that have 
Indian names. 12. Name four counties that bear 
names of presidents of the United States. 13. Make 
an alphabetical list of all the counties with their 
county seats. 14. Locate and give the county seat 

of each county as the 
teacher calls them in 
order. 

XI. History 

The history of 
Alabama is one 
continued story of 
struggle and 
achievement. Al¬ 
most from the time 
of the discovery of 
America until the 
early part of the 
nineteenth century 
there has been con¬ 
tention among the 
races and peoples 
for the occupation 
and control of this 
great, rich State. 

The first people 
to hold possession 
of the 
territory 

now included in the 
boundaries of Alabama were the Red Race 
that occupied all the North American conti¬ 
nent from the time Columbus made his 
voyage and discovery. These people were 
called Indians because Columbus thought 
that he had reached the shores of India. 
Just how long the Indians had been in 
Alabama and whence they came to North 
America is not known, and perhaps can 
never be learned. 

The Indians of Alabama, like those in 
other parts of the country, had no civili¬ 
zation. They lived in huts and wigwams, 
and for clothing wore the skins of wild 
animals. Their food consisted for the most 


Indians 
















60 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


part of fruits and berries, a little corn called 
“ maize,” which the women raised, and meat 
of the wild animals that the men killed with 
then' bows and arrows. They had no printed 
books, therefore no fixed language. The 
various tribes and groups spoke each in its 
own dialect. They made their fires by rub¬ 
bing together sticks and stones. 

The Indians knew very little about gov¬ 
ernment or worship. They were divided into 
tribes, and each tribe had a chief. Some- 


Alabama. At that time the land belonged 
to no race except the Indians who lived 
here. De Soto had heard that ^ 
a rich country lay to the north 
of Mexico. It was his wish to visit this 
country to secure riches and honor by the 
conquest of the people whom he might find 
here. When he left Spain he had six hun¬ 
dred soldiers. After spending about a year 
on the Island of Cuba, he secured more troops 
and supplies and started for the coast of 



Indian mound, Florence. 


times there was a body of older and more 
experienced men called a council, who 
aided the chief in the government of his 
people. The tribes were often at war with 
each other, and frequently several friendly 
tribes would join together for protection 
against the more powerful ones. It was 
such a race of people as this that occupied 
the present bounds of Alabama at the time 
the first white men from Europe came here. 

In the year 1540 Hernando De Soto, a 
member of one of the noble families of 
Spain, made a trip through the territory of 


Florida. Upon his landing he was met by 
hostile tribes of Indians, who remembered 
the cruel treatment of other Spaniards whom 
they had seen a few years before. Although 
the Indians fought bravely to keep back the 
invaders, De Soto’s armies were always 
victorious. 

De Soto spent the first winter in Florida, 
then marched through Georgia. He came 
into Alabama in the northeastern part, and 
marched in a southwestward direction to¬ 
ward the present site of Mobile. A great 
warrior chief named Tuskaloosa invited De 






ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


61 


Soto to come to Mauvilla, the seat of gov¬ 
ernment of Tuskaloosa’s territory. l)e Soto 
was not pleased with Tuskaloosa’s manner, 
so a guard was placed over the Indian Chief 
to make sure that he would not escape into 
the wilds of the forest. Tuskaloosa left the 
guard that had been placed over him and 
was lost amongst the warriors. When De 
Soto undertook to recapture Tuskaloosa, a 
great battle was fought, in which most of the 
Indians, including Chief Tuskaloosa, were 
killed. De Soto continued his march toward 
the northwest, fighting his way against 
hostile tribes until he reached the Mississippi 
River. After searching in this vicinity for 
many months for gold and silver, he died on 
the banks of the river and was buried by his 
men in its waters. The three hundred men 
left of the expedition went to Mexico, and 
some of them finally returned to Spain. 

Since the attempt of De Soto to find riches 
in Alabama had failed, the Spanish people 

The F nch ^ or near ^ 150 years made no 
attempt to plant colonies in this 
territory. In the year 1682 a Frenchman by 
the name of La Salle came down the Missis¬ 
sippi River and took possession of the land 
drained by this river and its tributaries for 
the French. It was his hope to combine all 
the territory from the Gulf of Mexico north¬ 
ward with the French possessions in Canada, 
and to conquer the English, who had settled 
in many places on the Atlantic Coast. A 
settlement was made in the year 1699 at 
Biloxi. This colony did not prosper for the 
reason that the men would not work. Their 
leader, Iberville, soon died, and his brother 
Bienville took charge. On account of sick¬ 
ness at Biloxi the settlement was moved to a 
point on the Mobile river called Twenty- 
seven Mile Bluff. In the year 1702 a fort 
was erected which was named Mobile, per¬ 
haps for the reason that it was on or near 
the site where De Soto defeated Tuscaloosa 
in the battle of Mauvilla. 

In the year 1709 an overflow of the river 


destroyed the fort and the crops, so that the 
settlement had to be moved again. This 
time the place selected was the present site 
of Alobile, where the first work of building 
the new city was done in the year 1711. 

For many years after this first French 
colony was planted, cruel and incompetent 
rulers kept the colony from growing and * 
prospering as it should have done. The 
men were lazy, the Indians cruel, and the 
trade of the colonists was not prosperous. 
English traders came into the territory to 
trade with the Indians and to arouse their 
hatred against the French. Under these 
conditions France ceded to Spain in a secret 
agreement all of her Louisiana territory west 
of the Mississippi River, including the Island 
of Orleans. Mobile was not included in 
this transfer to the Spanish, but a little later, 
in the treaty of Paris, it was given by the 
French to Great Britain. 

Mobile now became the base of supplies 
of the British in their attempts to control 
the eastern half of the Mississippi Valley. 
The French occupied portions of 
this territory from which they The British 
did not retire until the British, by force of 
arms, drove them across the river to the 
west side. 

In the year 1779 England declared war 
against Spain, whereupon the Spanish Gov¬ 
ernor of Louisiana took all of the English 
forts in the south and captured them be¬ 
fore the British could interfere. 

For thirty-two years Spain controlled 
Mobile, though the colony did not prosper. 
Spain declared war against Spanish 
France on account of land dis¬ 
putes in America. She claimed a strip of 
territory about ninety miles wide, which the 
United States Government also claimed. 
Since the armies of Spain were busy with the 
French, Spain, by the treaty of Madrid, 
yielded to the United States the territory in 
dispute. The Spanish settlers were not 
pleased with the giving up of this land, so 




62 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


they gave much trouble to the Americans 
who occupied it. 

About this time a dispute arose between 
Spain and the United States in regard to 
The the right of possession of Mobile. 

Americans Spain claimed that by the treaty 
of Paris Mobile was separated from Louisi¬ 
ana, and that she was entitled to the territory 
by right of conquest in 1780. The United 
States sent troops against the fort under 
General James Wilkinson, who captured it 
for America. This was in the year 1813. 
From that time until now Mobile has re¬ 
mained under American rule. 

Even after the United States had secured 
entire possession of the territory now in- 
Trouble with eluded in Alabama, there were 
the Indians repeated struggles from time to 
time against hostile Indians, who now began 
to feel that the Americans would deprive them 
of their homes. The final struggle between 
the Indians and the Americans came when 
the Creek War broke out in 1813. Te- 
cumseh, the great chief of the Creeks, had 
united a number of smaller hostile tribes in 
the hope of killing all of the white men, or 
of driving them out of the territory. The 
first battle of this war was fought at Burnt 
Corn, in Monroe County, July, 1813. At 
first it seemed that the Americans would be 
victorious, but soon the Indians gained the 
advantage and drove the Americans into 
flight. The second battle is called the 
Massacre of Fort Mims. Fearing the cruel¬ 
ties of the Indians, the white people had 
gathered in this fort for protection. At 
dinner time on August 30, 1813, the In¬ 
dians suddenly rushed upon the fort and 
entered before the alarm could be given. 
Only about forty escaped of the more than 
550 people who had taken refuge in the fort. 

General Andrew Jackson, who had had 
much success in fighting the Indians in other 
States, came from Tennessee with two thou¬ 
sand men to give battle to the victorious 
Creeks. After defeating them in several im¬ 


portant battles near Talladega, he came upon 
them again at a place in Tallapoosa County 
called Horseshoe Bend. The bend of the 
river and the plan of attack were such that 
Jackson was able to surround the Indians 
and force them to surrender. After this no 
more serious troubles with the Indians arose, 
though not all of them were removed to 
another territory until the year 1837. 

The Mississippi territory, which included 
the present State of Alabama, was organized 
by an Act of Congress of the Organization 
United States in the year 1798. and admission 
From this time until 1817 Ala- as a state 
bama was a part of Mississippi. It became a 
separate territory by an Act of Congress in 
1817, and was governed by the laws of the 
United States until its admission to the 
Union, December 14, 1819, as the twenty-sec¬ 
ond State. The Capital of the Alabama ter¬ 
ritory was placed at St. Stephens, in Washing¬ 
ton County, and William Wyatt Bibb was 
appointed by President Monroe to be Gov¬ 
ernor. Cahaba, in Dallas County, was chosen 
as the site for the first capital of the State, 
though because suitable buildings were not 
available there, Huntsville, in Madison 
County, was made the capital for about a 
year. The location at Cahaba proved un¬ 
desirable, so that the capital was later re¬ 
moved to Tuscaloosa. At a still later date 
it was removed to Montgomery, where it has 
since remained. It will thus be seen that 
Alabama has had five capitals. The first 
was the territorial capital at St. Stephens 
from 1817 to 1819; the second was the 
State capital at Huntsville, 1819 to 1820; 
Cahaba, 1820 to 1826; Tuscaloosa, 1826 to 
1846; Montgomery, 1846 to the present time. 

The present State House at Montgomery 
is a building of great historic interest. The 
first Capitol building was burned in the year 
1849 and rebuilt in 1851. In the year 1907 
the old building was enlarged by the ad¬ 
dition of a south wing. A north wing was 
added in 1912. 



ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


63 


In the hall of the House of Representa¬ 
tives in the Capitol there met on January 7, 
1861, a body of men who had been selected 
at an election, and who have since become 
known in historv as the “ Secession Conven- 
tion.” This convention passed an ordi¬ 
nance of secession which withdrew Alabama 
from the Union of the States. Upon learning 
of this action the senators and representatives 
from Alabama in the United States Congress 
withdrew and came to their homes. On 
February 4, following the secession, repre¬ 
sentatives from six Southern States which 
had seceded from the Union met in Mont¬ 
gomery, the capital of Alabama, to or¬ 
ganize the Confederate States of America. 
On February 18, following this action, Jef¬ 
ferson Davis of Mississippi, first President of 
the Confederate States of America, was in¬ 
augurated on the porch of the Capitol build¬ 
ing. The place where he stood as he took 
the oath of office is now marked by a beauti¬ 
ful star, which is a point of interest to all 
visitors. 

Throughout the entire period of the War 
between the States, Alabama gave freely of 
her men and supplies to the defense of the 
right of a State to secede. More than 
120,000 troops went to the front, many of 
whom are buried in unknown graves. Be¬ 
sides these, Alabama furnished many brave 
generals, among whom the best known are 
General Joseph Wheeler, General John B. 
Gordon, General R. E. Rhodes, General 
Josiah Gorgas, General James H. Clanton, 
and General Henry D. Clayton. 

Important battles were fought at many 
places in Alabama, among which are Tus¬ 
caloosa, Selma, Fort Morgan, and Fort 
Blakely. 

Upon the return of the Alabama soldiers 
to their homes at the close of the War be- 
Reconstruc- tween the States, they found 
tion their homes destroyed and their 

fortunes gone. To add to their troubles and 
sorrows, the Government of the United 


States, under the influence of men who op¬ 
posed secession, passed many laws which 
made it hard for those who had fought against 
the Union. In many cases ignorant and 
vicious negroes were given the privilege to 
vote which was denied to the white men. 
At the State election of the year 1875, white 
people secured control of their government 
and began again to construct a State. 

From the close of the reconstruction period 
to the present time, our history has been a 
forward movement of progress in all enter¬ 
prises to which a people of a free State have 
devoted their talents and energies. In the 
clearing of forests, in the tilling of the soil, 
in the digging of mines, in the building of 
roads, in the spanning of rivers, and in the 
making of mind and character, the people of 
Alabama have wrought a wonderful work. 
Although the Indian legend says that Ala¬ 
bama means, “ Here we rest,” boys and 
girls of Alabama must know that life can be 
full, rich, and joyous only to that person 
who gives himself freely, happily, and con¬ 
stantly to the performance of some useful 
labor. 

1. Tell how the first people of Alabama came to 
be called Indians. 2. Give an account of the com¬ 
ing of the first white man to the . 
territory of Alabama. 3. When q °l™ ons 
and where was the first permanent 
white settlement in Alabama made? 4. Give 
an account of the early struggles of this colony. 

5. Why and how did the French lose control? 

6. What nation succeeded the French in the 
possession of the colony? 7. Give an account of 
Spanish possession and rule. 8. When and under 
what circumstances did the Americans get the 
control of Mobile? 9. Give accounts of three 
great Indian battles fought in Alabama in 1813. 
10. Mention important historic events that have 
taken place in the present Capitol. 11. Give an 
account of the part that Alabama had in the War 
between the States. 12. Describe conditions that 
the Confederate soldier met upon his return to his 
Alabama home. 13. Make statements showing 
the progress of Alabama since the period of recon¬ 
struction. 14. What is the legendary meaning of 
the word “Alabama”? 



64 


ALABAMA SUPPLEMENT 


HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL INFORMATION ON THE COUNTIES OF ALABAMA 


Name 
Autauga . . 

Baldwin . . 

Barbour . . 

Bibb . . . 
Blount . . 

Bullock . . 

Butler . . 

Calhoun . . 

Chambers 
Cherokee 
Chilton . . 

Choctaw . . 

Clarke . . 

Clay . . . 

Cleburne . . 

Coffee. . . 

Colbert . . 

Conecuh . . 

Coosa . . . 

Covington . 
Crenshaw 
Cullman . . 

Dale . . . 

Dallas . . 

DeKalb . . 

Elmore . . 

Escambia 
Etowah . . 

Fayette . . 

Franklin . 
Geneva . - . 
Greene . . 

Hale . . . 

Henry . . 

Houston . . 

Jackson . . 

Jefferson . . 

Lamar . . 

Lauderdale . 
Lawrence 
Lee . . . 

Limestone 
Lowndes . . 

Macon . . 

Madison . . 

Marengo . . 

Marion . . 

Marshall . . 

Mobile . . 

Monroe . . 

Montgomery 
Morgan . 
Perry . 
Pickens . 
Pike . . . 

Randolph 
Russell . . 

St. Clair . . 

Shelby . . 

Sumter . . 

Talladega 
Tallapoosa . 
Tuscaloosa . 
Walker 
Washington 
Wilcox . . 

Winston . . 


Formed on 

Nov. 21, 1818 
Dec. 21, 1809 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Feb. 7, 1818 
Feb. 7, 1818 
Dec. 5, 1866 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Jan. 9, 1836 
Dec. 30, 1868 
Dec. 29, 1847 
Dec. 10, 1812 
Dec. 7, 1866 
Dec. 6, 1866 
Dec. 29, 1841 
Feb. 6, 1867 
Feb. 13, 1818 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 1, 1821 
Nov. 24, 1866 
Jan. 24, 1877 
Dec. 22, 1824 
Feb. 9, 1818 
Jan. 9, 1836 
Feb. 15, 1866 
Dec. 10, 1868 
Dec. 7, 1866 
Dec. 20, 1824 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Dec. 26, 1868 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Jan. 30, 1867 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Feb. 9, 1903 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Feb. 4, 1867 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Dec. 5, 1866 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Jan. 20, 1830 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 13, 1808 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Feb. 13, 1818 
Jan. 9, 1836 
Settled, 1711 
June 29, 1915 
Dec. 6, 1816 
Feb. 6, 1818 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Dec. 19, 1820 
Dec. 7, 1821 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Nov. 20, 1818 
Feb. 7, 1818 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Dec. 18, 1832 
Feb. 7, 1818 
Dec. 26, 1823 
June 4, 1800 
Dec. 13, 1819 
Feb.12, 1850 


Named for 

Indians. 

Abraham Baldwin 
James Barbour . . 

William W. Bibb . . 

William G. Blount . 
E. C. Bullock . . . 

William Butler . . 

John C. Calhoun 
Henry C. Chambers. 
Indian tribe . . . 

W. P. Chilton . . . 

Indian tribe . . . 

John Clarke . . . 

Henry Clay . . . 

P. R. Cleburne 
John Coffee . . 

George Colbert . 
Indian word . . 

Indian tribe . . 

L. W. Covington 
Andrew Crenshaw 
Joh G. Cullman 
Samuel Dale . . 

A. J. Dallas . . 

Johann DeKalb . 
John A. Elmore . 
Escambia River . 
Indian name . 
General La Fayette . 
Benjamin Franklin . 
Swiss City .... 
General Greene . . 

Stephen F. Hale . . 

Patrick Henry 
George S. Houston . 
Andrew Jackson . . 

Thomas Jefferson 
L. Q. C. Lamar . . 

James Lauderdale 
James Lawrence . 
Robert E. Lee 
Limestone Creek . 
William Lowndes 
Nathaniel Macon 
James Madison . 
French Battle . 
Francis Marion . . 

John Marshall 
Indian name . . . 

James Monroe . . 

L. P. Montgomery . 
Daniel Morgan . . 

O. H. Perry 
Andrew Pickens . . 

Z. M. Pike . . . . 

John Randolph . . 

G. C. Russell . . . 

Arthur St. Clair . . 

Isaac Shelby . . . 

Thomas Sumter . 
Indian word 
Indian word 
Indian tribe 
John W. Walker . . 

George Washington . 
Joseph M. Wilcox 
John A. Winston 


Formed from 
Montgomery County . 
Washington County . 
Pike County, Indians . 
Montgomery, Monroe 
Montgomery, Indians 
Adjacent Counties 
Montgomery, Conecuh 
Creek Cession, 1832 . 
Creek Cession, 1832 . 

Cherokee Cession . 
Adjacent Counties 
Adjacent Counties 
Washington County . 
Adjacent Counties 
Adjacent Counties 
Dale County . . . 

Franklin County . . 

Monroe County . . 

Creek Cession, 1832 . 
Henry County . . . 

Adjacent Counties 
Adjacent Counties . 
Henry, Covington . . 

Montgomery County . 
Cherokee Cession . . 

Adjacent Counties . . 

Baldwin, Conecuh . . 

Adjacent Counties . 
Adjacent Counties . . 

Indian Cessions . . . 

Adjacent Counties . . 

Marengo, Tuscaloosa . 
Adjacent Counties 
Conecuh County . . 

Adjacent Counties 
Cherokee Cession . . 

Blount County . . . 

Fayette, Marion 
Indian Cession . . . 

Indian Cessions . . 

Adjacent Counties . 
Indian Cessions . . 

Adjacent Counties . . 

Creek Cession, 1832 . 

Indian Cessions . . . 

Indian Cession . 
Tuscaloosa County 
Adjacent Counties 
Louisiana Purchase 
Washington County . 
Monroe County . . . 

Cherokee Cession . . 

Montgomery County . 
Tuscaloosa County 
Henry, Montgomery . 
Creek Cession, 1832 
Creek Cession, 1832 . 

Shelby County . 
Montgomery County . 
Choctaw Cession . . 

Creek Cession, 1832 . 

Creek Cession, 1832 . 

Indian Cessions . . 

Marion, Tuscaloosa 
Choctaw’ Cessions . . 

Dallas, Monroe . . . 

Walker County . . . 


Area 

Population 

584 

20,038 

1595 

18,178 

912 

32,728 

634 

22,791 

649 

21,456 

610 

30,196 

763 

29,030 

630 

39,115 

588 

36,056 

577 

20,226 

729 

23,187 

932 

18,483 

1216 

30,987 

614 

21,006 

568 

13,385 

678 

26,119 

618 

24,802 

849 

21,433 

655 

16,634 

1042 

32,124 

618 

23,313 

763 

28,321 

563 

21,608 

957 

53,401 

786 

28,261 

622 

28,245 

957 

18,889 

542 

39,109 

643 

16,248 

647 

19,369 

578 

26,230 

635 

22,717 

646 

27,883 

560 

20,943 

579 

32,414 

1140 

32,918 

1135 

226,476 

601 

17,487 

694 

30,936 

700 

21,984 

632 

32,867 

596 

26,880 

739 

31,894 

614 

26,049 

811 

47,041 

956 

39,923 

743 

17,495 

602 

28,553 

1226 

80,854 

1012 

27,115 

801 

82,178 

587 

33,781 

737 

31,222 

875 

25,055 

671 

30,815 

590 

24,659 

655 

25,937 

645 

20,715 

806 

26,949 

908 

28,699 

755 

37,921 

763 

31,034 

1346 

47,559 

777 

37,013 

1087 

14,454 

896 

33,810 

630 

12,855 

























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